Cobbers on the Brain – Page 112 – Student Commentary on the Neurological Sciences

Addiction: A Disease or a Choice?

Posted on October 24, 2016 by Joseph Kennedy / 0 Comment

Like many of the issues we have been looking at recently that involve the brain, this is going to be a complicate issue but I will try to tackle it the best that I can. But, I firmly believe that addiction is a disease and in this blog I will try to show why I, and many others in the scientific community believe that.
To start off, it is worth nothing that addiction is classified as a disease by many medical associations including the American Medical Association and the American Society of Addiction Medicine.
Like many other diseases that can afflict a person, addiction is brought on through a combination of behavioral, environmental and biological factors, with genetic risks accounting for about half of the likelihood that somebody will develop an addiction.
HOW DRUG USE CHANGES BRAIN CHEMISTRY
In a normal healthy brain, when a person satisfies basic needs pleasurable chemicals are released in the brain that makes the brain want to repeat what just caused that pleasure. This is a driving force of survival, such as receiving pleasure when drinking water or eating food.
Many addictive substances release very high levels of these chemicals in the brain, and with continued use over time the brain may start to need these substances to feel normal since there are always these high levels of pleasure chemicals inside of it.
This is a major problem because a lot of things that should normally bring pleasure don’t bring nearly as much as these chemicals do, causing people to have cravings for these addictive drugs that far outweigh normal healthy activities and leading to a decline in one’s overall health.
It is also a problem because these brain changes can remain for a very long time, or even permanently after someone uses these substances.
BUT ISN’T IT SOMEONES CHOICE TO USE THESE SUBSTANCES?
Well, technically yes. Especially at the very start of an addiction before the brain chemistry has been altered an individual has full control over weather or not they want to ingest these substances. The Problem comes from what I mentioned above and that is that this brain chemistry is altered so significantly that a person loses most or all control over their behavior.
Brain imaging studies of people with various forms of addiction show that there are actual physical changes to the brain in areas that are important for critical for judgement, decision making, learning and memory, and behavior control. This makes the addiction stronger and more signs of the disease of addiction show.

WELL THEN WHY DO SOME PEOPLE BECOME ADDICTED TO DRUGS AND OTHER DON’T?
As with any other disease that we have discussed as well as others we haven’t, the chances that someone forms addictions differs from person to person and there is no single way to determine that someone will become addicted to drugs.
Genetics play a huge part in addiction and children with an addict parent are 4x as likely to become addicts themselves. Also currently almost 60 percent of people suffering from alcoholism also have family history of alcoholism.
There are other factors that can increase the likelihoods of depression developing including already existing psychiatric conditions, social environment, and trauma.
WHAT ABOUT THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS?
For addiction, there are certain risk factors as well as opposing protective factors that contribute to the risks of forming addiction.
On one hand, aggressive behavior in childhood, lack of parental supervision, poor social skills, drug experimentation, and community poverty all put someone at risk of forming this disease. While on the other hand good self-control, parental monitoring and support, positive relationships, academic competence and school anti-drug policies during childhood put someone at lower risks of developing addictions.

For all of the points that I just talked about, this is why I consider addiction to be a disease and not a choice. Because of this I believe we need to start treating addition for what it is, socially and medically so people with the condition can start getting the treatment and care they need to be able to improve and at least take back control over the disease, even if it can’t be beaten. Thank you for reading my thoughts about this.

Disease/Health

Addiction: A Dopamine Story

Posted on October 24, 2016 by / 0 Comment

Addiction is a neurological disorder that affects the reward system in the brain. In a healthy person, the reward system reinforces important behaviors that are essential for survival such as eating, drinking, sex, and social interaction. For example, the reward system ensures that you reach for food when you are hungry, because you know that after eating you will feel good. It makes the activity of eating pleasurable and memorable, so you would want to do it again and again. Drugs of abuse hijack this system, turning the person’s natural needs into drug needs.

The brain consists of billions of neurons, or nerve cells, which communicate via chemical messages, or neurotransmitters. These cells need to work together to produce the right signals. When the signals are done the pathway also has to be properly shutoff so that it is ready when it is next needed.
The major reward pathways involve transmission of the neurotransmitter dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain to the limbic system and the frontal cortex. Engaging in enjoyable activities generates action potentials in dopamine-producing neurons of the VTA. This causes dopamine release from the neurons into the synaptic space. Dopamine then binds to and stimulates dopamine-receptor on the receiving neuron. This stimulation by dopamine is believed to produce the pleasurable feelings or rewarding effect. Dopamine molecules are then removed from the synaptic space and transported back in to the transmitting neuron by a special protein called dopamine-transporter.

Most drugs of abuse increase the level of dopamine in the reward pathway. Some drugs such as alcohol, heroin, and nicotine indirectly excite the dopamine-producing neurons in the VTA so that they generate more action potentials. Cocaine acts at the nerve terminal. It binds to dopamine-transporter and blocks the re-uptake of dopamine. Methamphetamine – a psychostimulant – acts similarly to cocaine in blocking dopamine removal. In addition, it can enter the neuron, into the dopamine-containing vesicles where it triggers dopamine release even in the absence of action potentials.

Different drugs act different way but the common outcome is that dopamine builds-up in the synapse to a much greater amount than normal. This causes a continuous stimulation, maybe over-stimulation of receiving neurons and is responsible for prolonged and intense euphoria experienced by drug users. Repeated exposure to dopamine surges caused by drugs eventually de-sensitizes the reward system. The system is no longer responsive to everyday stimuli; the only thing that is rewarding is the drug. That is how drugs change the person’s life priority. After some time, even the drug loses its ability to reward and higher doses are required to achieve the rewarding effect.
Because drug abuse and addiction have so many dimensions and disrupt so many aspects of an individual’s life, treatment is not simple. Effective treatment programs typically incorporate many components, each directed to a particular aspect of the illness and its consequences. Addiction treatment must help the individual stop using drugs, maintain a drug-free lifestyle, and achieve productive functioning in the family, at work, and in society. Because addiction is a disease, most people cannot simply stop using drugs for a few days and be cured. Patients typically require long-term or repeated episodes of care to achieve the ultimate goal of sustained abstinence and recovery of their lives.

Uncategorized

Lean In: Combating PTSD Among Combat Veterans!

Posted on October 19, 2016 by / 0 Comment

All too often my House Of Cards binge session has been ruined by yet another Prozac or Pexeva commercial, almost leaving me teetering on the brink of anxiety, smart move on their part. Putting aside my endearment for commercials, it is important to highlight how anxiety and depression have become mainstream public health concerns in the United States as our men and women in uniform have returned home from serving their country in far flung corners of the earth, only to now fall victim to Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In 2013, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs released a study that covered suicides from 1999 to 2010, which showed that roughly 22 veterans were committing suicide per day, or one every 65 minutes.
Without question, extensive reforms in the Veterans Administration are necessary to develop a robust support system to mitigate this rampant problem. However, you and I can raise awareness on this issue and reach out to veterans in our community to build a support network that serves to educate, give audience to their concerns, preemptively flag individuals who need professional/medical help, and link them with the resources that they need. In this vein, i’ll dedicate the rest of this post to informing our veterans about antidepressant medication.
There are several different categories of antidepressants, each of which bears a characteristic side effect profile and a mechanism of action. Given the association of depression with the levels and activity of neurotransmitters in the brain such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, most antidepressants relieve depression by targeting the receptors of these neurotransmitters. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are one category of antidepressants, and they happen to the most commonly prescribed and effective subtype, with the least amount of side effects. While the exact mechanism is unknown, SSRIs are believed to alleviate symptoms by selectively blocking the reuptake of serotonin into presynaptic neurons, thereby increasing synaptic levels of the neurotransmitter available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. Potential side effects of SSRIs may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sexual dysfunction, and headache. Examples of SSRI’s include fluoxetine (Prozac, Selfemra), paroxetine (Paxil, Pexeva), sertraline (Zoloft), citalopram (Celexa) and escitalopram (Lexapro).

Another class of drugs are serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). These block the reabsorption of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain. Examples of SNRI medications include duloxetine (Cymbalta), venlafaxine (Effexor XR), desvenlafaxine (Pristiq, Khedezla) and levomilnacipran (Fetzima). Some side effects of SNRIs include nausea, dizziness, tiredness, constipation, and insomnia. Norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) are a class that block the reabsorption of norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain. They are one of the few antidepressants not frequently associated with sexual side effects. Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Aplenzin, Forfivo XL) falls into this category. Atypical antidepressants don’t fit neatly into any of the other antidepressant categories. Like other antidepressants, atypical antidepressants affect the levels of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine in the brain. Atypical antidepressants include bupropion, mirtazapine, nefazodone and trazodone. Some common side effects include dry mouth, constipation, dizziness, and lightheadedness.

The last two classes of drugs include Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). TCAs block the reabsorption of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain. Additionally, they block muscarinic M1, histamine H1, and alpha-adrenergic receptors. They were one of the first approved antidepressants but are generally no longer prescribed unless a patient has tried an SSRI first without improvement. TCAs affect several neurotransmitters in the brain and, as a result, cause numerous side effects. The most common side effects include dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, dizziness, memory impairment, and delirium. Exmples of TCAs include amitriptyline, desipramine, doxepine , and Imipramine. MAOIs block the activity of monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine in the brain and other parts of the body. These have many drug and food interactions and cause significant side effects in comparison to the new antidepressants, so have been replaced by the latter. Common side effects include postural hypotension, weight gain, and sexual side effects.

In precis, there exists a wide variety of antidepressant drug classes, each of which has drugs that target specific neurotransmitter receptors and have particular side effect profiles. The most effective class, which also fortunately has the least amount of side effects, are SSRIs and the least effective are MAOIs. PTSD, particularly among combat veterans, is a significant public health issue and it is imperative that we engage in a coordinated effort to inform our veterans and lend them the emotional and medical support they need to combat this condition. Lean in together with me in giving a shoulder to our service men and women, it is the least that we can do.

Uncategorized

What Is Anxiety?

Posted on October 18, 2016 by / 0 Comment

We hear about anxiety a lot. So what is anxiety? The word can be used two ways, anxiety can be used as a synonym for fear and worry. It’s the feeling you get when you have a test tomorrow and haven’t studied. In addition there are anxiety disorders, which are a class of mental illnesses characterized by abnormal levels of worry.
There are many types of anxiety disorders. Some of the most common are:

Generalized anxiety
Social anxiety
Panic Disorder
Phobias

It is normal to be worried and fearful sometimes. These feelings help us navigate our way through life and tell us when something bad may happen. Absence of fear can easily lead to death or injury. So what is the difference between anxiety and an anxiety disorder?
An anxiety disorder means excessive worry—especially if it is over a long period of time. This can be worry about something specific (such as a phobia), or worry about everything or even nothing in particular. Sleep issues, impaired concentration, fatigue, and restlessness can also be symptoms. Overall, people with anxiety disorders are affected by worry and anxiety to an abnormal degree. They may not be able to function in society due to their excessive anxiety.
There are also symptoms of anxiety in the brain. People with anxiety have low levels of a neurotransmitter called GABA. GABA inhibits signaling in the brain, basically it calms everything down. Inhibitors of GABA called anxiolytics are often used to treat anxiety.
So why do these low levels of GABA occur? Well it’s complicated. Anxiety disorders can be triggered by stress. Genetics also plays a large role. Some people are much more susceptible to anxiety than others. Alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs can also trigger anxiety. In some unusual cases, caffeine can trigger anxiety.
To conclude, anxiety disorders are a treatable illness. The most prevalent symptom is abnormal amounts of fear or worry. Eighteen percent of American adults will be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder at some point in their lives.
Anxiety disorders are real, and they are so much more than just feeling worried sometimes. It is important to be aware of these illnesses so we can help our family, friends, neighbors, or even ourselves.

Community/Health

The Differences Between Anxiety and Stress

Posted on October 18, 2016 by / 0 Comment

As a college student, I hear the words “anxiety” and “stress” tossed around all the time. Phrases like, “This test is making me so anxious,” “My anxiety is through the roof,” or “I’m so stressed” can be heard daily on a college campus. What many people are not informed about, though, is that “stress” and “anxiety” are not interchangeable. So, here’s the breakdown.

Stress

The Definition: According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, stress is “a state of mental tension or worry caused by problems in your life, work, etc.”
The Statistics: According to the American Psychological Association, “more than half of working adults-and 47 percent of all Americans-say they are concerned with the amount of stress in their lives.”
The Science: Stress is caused by a trigger that leads to a release of hormones like adrenaline and cortisol from your hypothalamus. These hormones are pretty short-lived, but they cause a variety of effects in the body, including increased heart rate and respiration, decreased digestion and salivation (you know when your mouth gets all dry during a speech?), and an increase in blood sugar. All of these effects are meant to prime you for a “fight-or-flight” situation, but can be triggered by day-to-day stressors like exams, personal conflicts, or things that go bump in the night. When people are constantly exposed to stressors, like long-term family problems or constant noises like traffic, their bodies might trigger the stress response all the time, which is called chronic stress.

Anxiety

The Definition: Again according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, anxiety is, “painful or apprehensive uneasiness of mind usually over an impending or anticipated ill.”
The Statistics: According to the National Institute of Mental Health, “Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illness in the U.S., affecting 40 million adults in the United States age 18 and older, or 18% of the population.”
The Science: There are many factors that contribute to anxiety, including genetic and neurochemical factors as well as negatively impactful experiences, especially during childhood. For example, somebody could have a genetic makeup that predisposes them to imbalances in key neurotransmitters, like serotonin, and then a traumatic event could cause those genes to code for a chronic imbalance in neurotransmitters, leading to anxiety.

The Take Home

Stress is caused by a specific event or trigger and uses hormones to elicit a short-term “fight-or-flight” response in the body. Anxiety is a general feeling of helplessness or impending doom that can be triggered by external events, but is typically caused by internal factors like genetic predisposition and neurotransmitter imbalance. So, the main difference between stress and anxiety is that stress has an immediate outside trigger, like the test you have next week or your friend popping out of a closet, and goes away when your hormone levels return to normal. Anxiety, on the other hand, does not have an immediate cause and is characterized by permanent changes in the brain’s chemistry. So, the next time you say that your test is giving you anxiety, you know that you are really just feeling stress, and that you will return to a normal state when you ace your exam (or, at least, when it’s all over).

Uncategorized

How Creating a Fire Creates Brain Plasticity

Posted on October 18, 2016 by / 0 Comment

Anxiety Disorder(AD) is more common than you think in today’s society. According to Anxiety & Depression Association of America(ADAA), anxiety is the most common mental illness & affects nearly 20% of adults in America (40 million). In my opinion, the way parenting is today and what is lost at the molecular level do to unlearned behaviors is detrimental to a normal healthy life. ADAA also supports my opinion with them stating that life events can cause AD to develop. Although many would argue that multiple issues can lead to signs of anxiety, I think life experiences and the brain chemistry that is built from that is what can help produce LTP or plasticity in the brain, but with the right balance of activity.
Now there are many types of anxiety, but to keep it simple and in a broader sense, anxiety disorder (AD) is how I will refer to it. For those of you that don’t know, there are multiple ways of treatment. Medication is one and there are a couple others, but I believe direct therapy like exposure therapy or cognitive-behavioral therapy is the best way to lessen or diminish AD. These therapies really work on the individual and puts them in charge. They get to learn skills that are important to life, and they practice them over and over again until they have nearly perfected them. More specifically, exposure therapy throws objects of fear into play and as this gradually happens, the sense of fear and anxiety a patient once had, diminishes, thus, altered brain chemistry or plasticity is created.
So we know some therapies to treating AD, but lets get back to how parenting can lead to an unhealthy life. Children need everything today. They want, want, want, and many times, they get! Children also get assistance easier whether that’s a quick phone call to their parents or just the fact that parents are more consumed now-a-days with their children and they are only a room away. Essentially, what I mean by this is children, as well as teenagers and even adults who have parental supervision, are over protected, and I have personal experiences to support it.
I grew up in a neighborhood full of children and teenagers, with my brother and I being some of the oldest on the block. We noticed which houses had parents that were more relaxed when it came to letting their children come and play baseball or ride bikes until it was dark. But we also noticed the kids that had to be home for dinner, and then stay in, or be home by 9pm with no exceptions. Sometimes some parents would even just say no to outside play time somedays (like why?). Now, of course, this wasn’t the case for my brother and I. We stayed out late, we got in trouble, we did some crazy things; we even attempted to start a mini fire in what looked like a fire pit, but it was in our local park (fire is awesome when you are a kid) near the playground and was simply just someone who dug up a small hole and put sticks and debris in it.
That day at the park, we got escorted back home by our local police (now we were maybe 10 and 12 years old) and with my parents, we all had a nice long talk. What did my brother and I learn? Well, next time we should have ran when we had the chance…KIDDING! No, we had our first in counter of doing something illegal at our city park as well as that fire isn’t something to mess around with! Now this is just one life experience, but it changed the way we both thought and lead to future ways of coping with certain decisions. It created dendritic growth (neuron growth) thus more plasticity/proper LTP in our brains—learned behavior. Experiences like these are needed in everyone today, and I think parenting is leading the wrong way just because they want to make sure their offspring aren’t hurt and are safe, but we all need to live a little (thanks mom and dad). Having life experiences outside your room and beyond your parents can help avoid Anxiety and its subtypes, and can lead to a healthy life that everyone wants to experience.

Disease/Health

The Resilient Brain

Posted on October 17, 2016 by / 0 Comment

We live in a world where tragic headlines cover the front page of every newspaper and early morning news segments are filled with stories of violence and hate. We live in a world of constant technological and scientific advancements that slowly pace ahead of us, where good is not good enough and perfection seems to be only temporary as we struggle to create more, do more, and be more. We live in a world where poverty and hunger seems to be the new normal, with more and more people every day careworn, unable to fulfill their basics needs of survival.
It should not be surprising then, to say that we live in a world full of stress.
Fortunately, we know that as humans, we have an innate psychological response to stress, helping us to survive and cope with the struggles that life hands us. However, while some people are able to adapt to particular stressors, others are unable. So, what makes one person more resilient to stress than another? Recent neuroscience research has pointed to brain.
Stress and Resilience Defined
According to Medscape Psychiatry, stress can be defined as the consequence of a physical, chemical, or emotional stressor that requires us to either adapt or suffer physical or mental strain or tension. Resilience then, is the quality that prevents specific individuals who are at risk for maladaptation and psychopathology from being affected by these problems.
An individual’s vulnerability to stress and capacity for resilience is complex, reflecting a variety of factors including the biological, genetic, and environmental risk/resilience factors.
Trauma and PTSD
Recent studies have used imaging techniques to peer inside the brains of trauma victims who experience PTSD, and those who have experienced trauma but not develop PTSD. These studies report that in people with PTSD, the hippocampus, a brain region important for memory, and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a part of the prefrontal cortex that is involved in reasoning and decision-making, are sensitive to stress shrink.
On the other hand, people who have experienced trauma but do not develop PTSD, show more activity in the prefrontal cortex, and a stronger connection between the ACC and hippocampus. This has lead research to believe that resilience may be dependent on the communication between the reasoning circuitry in the cortex and the emotional circuitry in the limbic system.
(For more information on these studies, click here.)
Coping Mechanisms
Neuroimaging studies have also looked specifically at the coping mechanisms individuals use when subject to stress and how they relate to the brain. Research on this topic has found that people with more neuroplasticity and neuroflexibility in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain involved in emotional regulation, were less likely to use negative coping strategies and respond to stress in emotionally destructive waves (e.g. binge drinking and overeating). The results suggest that this specific area in the brain is involved in wresting back control during times of stress – a key aspect of resilience.
Teaching Resilience
While efforts are being made to develop novel drugs for psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety, PTSD, and depression, in the meantime, it might be helpful to think about how we foster resilience in our youth in hopes of preventing future adverse reactions to increased stress or trauma.

Disease

Erasing Memory as Potential Treatment for Anxiety and PTSD

Posted on October 17, 2016 by / 0 Comment

Should scientists be able to prevent memory formation? If you could have one of your memories erased, would you? Do you think that there is a place for this in a clinical setting? What about victims of rape and other crimes or soldiers with PTSD? Where do we draw the line?
Due to a recent discovery in a study by Madroñal et al., these are questions that we now need to ask ourselves. Their experiment hoped to bring to light the role that the dentate gyrus (DG), a region of the brain within the hippocampus, was thought to play in memory recall. Through their research they discovered that the dentate gyrus played a different, unexpected role. The scientists discovered that “inhibition of DG is associated with a rapid and persistent loss of memory.”
In a normally functioning brain, information received by the brain is relayed through the dentate gyrus to another region of the hippocampus, the CA3, where it is encoded. This information can then be retrieved as a memory through Schaffer collateral projections that link the CA3 to another region, the CA1. However, if the dentate gyrus is inhibited (Madroñal et al. used a specific serotonin receptor agonist) the information cannot be relayed to the CA3 and the memory is lost.
Based on this finding, the researchers concluded that, “our findings demonstrating generalization of DG inhibition-induced memory loss across tasks coupled with our identification of an endogenous pharmacological target that can induce similar memory loss raise the possibility that the novel memory mechanism we have uncovered may be useful for erasing unwanted memories in a clinical setting.”
Moving from blocking the formation of memories to erasing memories that have already formed may be quite a leap, but there is potential for it and the clinical applications would be numerous. A person with anxiety because of the traumatic experience he had in fifth grade could forget it and potentially lessen the anxiety. A victim of rape could forget about the experience completely and hopefully move on. A soldier with PTSD could live the rest of his life without memories of the horrors of war.
It is still unknown if these things are possible, but further research on the subject could reveal ways for it to happen. It would be a controversial treatment that could involve surgery or drug administration; however, the benefits have the potential to significantly outweigh the risks. It will be interesting to see what other discoveries will surface in the coming years.
As scientific research uncovers more about the inner workings of the brain and the rest of the body, we will encounter more ethical dilemmas like this one. Current and future physicians and policy makers will have to make some decisions on controversial matters that will change medicine.

Community/Disease/Health

Anxiety: What Can You Do?

Posted on October 17, 2016 by / 0 Comment

According to the ADAA, anxiety disorders are the most common mental illnesses in the United States, affecting about 40 million adults. I commonly hear people talking about how their anxiety levels are “through the roof” due to school or other events that are going on at the time. Most of the time it is said in a joking manner through passing conversation, but it is important for people to recognize that anxiety is real and hits home for many people.
So, what can you do as an individual to help others experiencing anxiety?
Well, you can start off with learning the basics about the disorder.
Anxiety is defined as a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome. Most people tend to worry, but individuals with anxiety excessively worry about many things at the same time. Anxiety does not come in one flavor, in fact there are many different types of anxiety that someone can experience, which all have their defining characteristics. A common anxiety disorder is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), which is characterized by persistent, excessive, and unrealistic worry about everyday things. Another type is social anxiety disorder, which is the fear of being scrutinized and judged by others in social or performance situations. This is NOT just being shy, but much more so than that. Some other anxiety disorders worth mentioning are panic disorders, OCD, and PTSD. Anxiety disorders can develop from a complex set of risk factors, such as genetics, brain chemistry, and environmental factors.
Back to the real question then, what can you do to help someone experiencing anxiety?
Once you have recognized the prevalence of anxiety in a particular individual, find a way to approach them and let them know you are there to help. By giving someone a safe space to talk and share feelings, it might serve as a much needed de-stressor that they did not know was available. Feeling that you are alone with a disorder like anxiety can just increase the negative effects on everyday life. If the person is not willing to talk, you could point out resources for them to access in order to get help with their disorder. For example, on college campuses, there are counselors who are more than willing to help struggling students. You could also recommend apps that they can download onto their phones that will take them through steps in order to decrease their feelings of anxiety (HelloMind and Anxiety Free are two options). This may be a good option since our world runs on technology now.
It is important to remember that everyone experiences anxiety differently, so your approach will need to be molded to the individual you are reaching out to. I hope with this tidbit of information you will be able to make a difference in someones life who is battling anxiety.

Disease/Health

Connecting Stress, Inflammation, and Depression

Posted on October 17, 2016 by / 0 Comment

Stress has been associated with Depression for a long time. The occurrence of major negative events over life, especially early life, has been shown to be strongly associated with developing Major Depressive Disorder. However, a mechanism explaining this connection has and continues to elude the scientific community. A recent review article titled From Stress to Inflammation and Major Depressive Disorder: A Social Signal Transduction Theory of Depression proposed A Social Signal Transduction Theory of Depression. Overall, this hypothesis connects stress to inflammation, and then inflammation to MDD. Detailing a mechanism provides a basis for future treatment and understanding of MDD and its development.
The overall goal of this paper was to show that stress can induce inflammation, which can then induce depression-like symptoms. First of all, what is inflammation? Inflammation is the body’s natural immune response in response to a pathogen, injury, or another external stimulus. Our body sends signals from the brain to our immune cells in order to modify protein production, transcription and translation, and create an inflammatory response. The response is the gathering of immune cells to an area and its eventual repair/disinfection. For our purposes, the stress response to major life events that are known to correlate with depression are important, like social exclusion, loss of job, loss or relationship, etc….What is supposed to happen is seen below, the brain perceives a threat, releases cortisol which prepares the body to deal with the threat by inducing that flight or fight response while at the same time depressing inflammation response. After the threat has been taken care of, the cortisol levels drop and cytokine levels rise (increased inflammation) to deal with the likely injury of said stressful event. What happens in the proposed hypothesis is that glucocorticoid resistance develops in the immune cells of the body. Like insulin resistance in Diabetes, glucocorticoid resistance leads to immune cells not responding to their signal. Effectively, this removes the suppression of inflammation from cortisol released during stressful events. This leads to elevated basal levels of inflammation markers in the body (simply meaning more overall inflammation) due to lack of suppression and can actually lead to increased levels of cortisol. This increase in cortisol has to happen so the body can still maintain the functionality of cortisol through the developing resistance. As you can see, this can turn into a snowball effect. Increased stress and cortisol lead to resistance, resistance leads to the need for higher amounts of cortisol, more resistance and it continues.

The pairing of inflammation and depression isn’t as straightforward. Because a simple, obvious mechanism of interaction isn’t easy to see, the connection must be shown through large studies and experimentation. The first body of evidence to jump out is that there are several inflammation-related disorders that co-occur with depression, including asthma, arthritis, metabolic syndrome and more. Secondly, elevated levels of inflammatory activity are seen in patients with depression. Certain cytokines present in an inflammatory response can reduce serotonin and other neurotransmitters by decreasing the availability of the precursor. The administration of certain inflammation agents into mice show the development of depression symptoms. Possibly the biggest piece of evidence for this connection is the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory agents in alleviating depression, like aspirin.

The article’s social signal transduction theory is depicted above. First, a social-environmental experience indicating a threat or adversity experience and processed in the brain. Then a brain signal goes out through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2), sympathetic nervous system (3) and efferent vagus nerve (5).This leads to the production of glucocorticoids (cortisol), epinephrine, and acetylcholine respectively. Glucocorticoids and acetylcholine are anti-inflammatory, and epinephrine is pro. These effects are produced by transcription modification of immune response agents (6). Cytokines then pass through the blood-brain barrier at leaky spots (6). And then finally, cytokine stimulation of primary afferent nerve fibers to the vagus nerve relays info about mood, motor activity, motivation, and much more. This novel mechanism presents a better way of understanding depression, including its development, treatment, mechanism, and interaction with other diseases. Inflammation in the brain is a new topic that is involved in many other disorders beyond depression and further research detailing it and its effect on the brain may open the door for treatment of a variety of illnesses.