Cobbers on the Brain

All college seniors naturally find themselves at a point of reflection. During this time, seniors entering the work force, graduate school, medical school, ext. find themselves contemplating not only what’s next, but also the previous 3 years. Personally, I’ve had a significant amount of time this semester to look back at my time at Concordia and contemplate what I’m truly going to take away as a neuro and psych major. Neurochemistry gave me the opportunity to do this in a way I never thought possible.

The Landscape of Neuroscience

Neuroscience is a naturally interdisciplinary fields where chemistry, biology, and psychology all come together to tell the story of the brain. As a psychology major, I naturally find myself leaning towards psychology side of neuroscience, while the chemistry aspect of this story is something that made me nervous. I walked into the first day of Neurochemistry where many others had 3 full years of chemistry under their belts, and there was me armed only with my survey of organic and biochemistry class from sophomore year. While I was nervous, I quickly realized this is a class where my skillset would not hurt me, but help me and the others around me. The neurochemistry class is a team, with each member tackling questions and wrestling with ideas through their own expertise. I often found myself investigating the cognitive and psychological implications of various diseases, while I was very appreciative of those who studied the individual receptors and kinases of signaling cascades that I would have been scratching my head if I had to explain. In this facet, I see us going on to tackle the worlds problems in much a similar way. In any team, you rely on each other’s strength and weaknesses to come together to accomplish a goal, and it was fun to see this shine through in an academic environment. Through this environment, we naturally followed the goals for liberal learning that this college values greatly.

We fostered a love for learning as each week we had the opportunity to investigate what made our own wheels turn, and more importantly explain that in a way that makes sense to someone who may not know as much about that question.

We developed critical foundational skills allowing us to communicate and work together to share our ideas in one on one, and group settings where our intellect could shine. We listened and grew with each-other through discussions that merged science with everyday life.

Throughout the class, we saw how science can bring complex issues together. From the spiritual and implications of schizophrenic hallucinations, to the complex societal issues surrounding obesity, as both scientists and citizens we examined hundreds of interdisciplinary connections reaching much further than an 8-page review article.

One of the beautiful things about neurochemistry is the fact that it can be applied to each of our lives. Everyone has felt stressed, maybe had a sugar craving that felt like a withdrawal, or listened to their favorite song and felt a surge of reward. Understanding the neurochemical implications of these examples contributes to a deeper sense of self that brings science together with our conscious perception of the world.

Artstract by B. Swanson

BREW

And of course, the most pressing question, how did we BREW? The reality is, we forget most of what we learn in our classes. We must ask ourselves, what can I takeaway from Neurochem and why does it matter? I think each of us should reflect and answer these questions for ourselves because it varies person to person. For me, I come from a strong psychology background, but the world of psychology is changing. With each fMRI and EEG study psychological concepts that were once explained by a superego can now be better explained though the function of the pre-frontal cortex and a signaling cascade. There are hundreds of examples where previous theories are now supported directly or indirectly by neural evidence. Indeed, in my view the world of psych and neuro are on a collision course and it would be wise to understand both worlds to become a modern psychologist. Looking back at my Concordia education, this is the edge I try to incorporate into each graduate school application. What I loved about this neurochemistry class is I saw so many different skillsets from my classmates come together. I saw neuro merge with psych, bio, and of course, chemistry. As each of us set out to contribute to the world, we do so armed with our own unique knowledge and experiences. In this class, we added diversity to our own worldviews over the course of the semester by taking in each other’s unique expertise and points of view. I am excited to see how this impacts the future doctors, professors, researchers, ext. in that room as we all integrate our liberal arts education with the hard sciences. While we all see the world through our own experiences, over the course of this semester, we merged our knowledge and experiences giving each of us a stronger and more diverse worldview. This will ultimately contribute to us tackling the worlds problems much like we tackled each paper that came our way; through a diverse set of perspectives that, when merged, created an enviornment of learning that would not have been possible without such variety. Thank you to you all for a fantastic semester!

There is nothing more unifying, but also diversifying than music. This juxtaposition is part of what makes music a critical interest to all, including researchers. Music is unifying in the way that everyone share some kind of experience with it; nearly every human can identify a memory that is triggered by a certain song. Perhaps a smell triggers a memory of a song, or a certain place brings back the memory of the first time you heard a tune. While we all share some aspect of a musical experience, these experiences vary greatly. For some, it is creating music themselves that encompasses their musical experience. For others, myself included, simply listening to music is the most prominent experience, as I have absolutely no ability to create it myself. Regardless of musical experience, perhaps where music is most unifying is within our brains, where music is processed similarly for most members of the population.

Music in the brain

Music elicits a variety of consequences in the brain; however none may be more prevalent than the rewarding, “feel good” effect. Where does this come from? Music, like many things can trigger the brain’s reward pathway which leads to a dopamine dump that keeps you opening your Spotify to listen to the next song. Your brain even begins to anticipate this reward, however the brains reaction to this anticipatory event remains unclear. Furthermore, music has been shown to alleviate stress in the brain by activating the Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis which has a calming effect to the individual by modulating other areas of the brain associated with higher stress and arousal. In light of these findings, the potential for music therapy as a future, empirically proven technique becomes a scientific possibility. In a world where pharmacological options for disorders involving stress are the most common treatment, music therapy opens the opportunity for a complimentary option with relatively no side effects.

Your Favorite Song

While the broad stroking effects of music are fascinating, what happens when your experiencing music much more personally, such as your favorite song? If you’re like me, when I hear my favorite song it’s accompanied by memories, a distinct happiness with the rhythm and beat, as well as a myriad of memories that flood my consciousness and allow me to immerse myself in the song. As it turns out, there is neural evidence to support this experience. When you’re listening to your favorite song, your pre-frontal cortex (sense of self), hippocampus (memory), and lateral parietal cortex (association area) all become active and link together. The research suggests the all-encompassing feeling of your favorite song is indeed represented in this circuit. While listening to music you don’t prefer, only the association area of the brain lights up, which is merely responsible for your perception of the rhythm and sound. This fascinating phenomenon provides evidence that your personal perception of music, is correlated with your brain firing together and providing an immersive experience that floods the reward center of the listener.

Conclusion

Whether you’re a musician, or just a music lover, music is often an integral part of our lives. As it turns out, it’s also a uniquely processed in our brain that can even be leveraged for therapeutic benefits. So next time you hear your favorite song, shut your eyes, relax, and let your brain take over.

Good things in life often come with risks. Sports are no exception; lots of physical, social and psychological benefits can be gained from engaging in sports, but many of them come with a risk of injury to the brain. A person can get a concussion through a variety different avenues, and sports are one of the most common-  other ways include falling, vehicle accidents and military combat, or anything else that causes physical trauma to the head. Given the serious impact that concussions can have on our brain’s functioning, any steps to minimize this risk should arguably be taken. This may not only include further research and improved screening, but dietary supplements as well. 

Medically speaking, concussions are called Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and are most directly caused by biomechanical force (considered the first injury phase) that disrupts the brain’s functioning (the second injury phase). The second injury phase involves the consequences of the first injury phase, and consists of many detrimental effects. For example, TBI has the ability to cause increased axon permeability and damaged neurofilaments in the brain, both of which may lead to axon dysfunction or disconnection. Much of this dysfunction builds upon itself as a cascade of events; initial ionic flux and glutamate release caused by the biomechanical force can result in increased energy demands and a period of metabolic crisis, leading to even more dysregulation. Inflammatory changes can also be triggered by TBI, possibly resulting in cellular injury and immunoexcitotoxicity. 

The Western medical system typically revolves around a “one problem, one solution” framework, but given how many ways our brain can be affected on a cellular level by TBI, a treatment that targets multiple aspects may be necessary. This is where dietary supplements come in. Omega-3 fatty acids (also called n-3FAs) may be able to fulfill a role like this, since they have the ability to affect all major mechanisms of TBI second injury phase through neuroregeneration, neuroprotection, and neuroinflammation. 

There are three types of omega-3 fatty acids used by the human body: ALA, EPA, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), but the majority of omega-3 fatty acids in the brain are DHA, functioning as a main ‘ingredient’ in central nervous system membranes. Increasing the amount of DHA present in membranes can promote neurite growth, branching, and synaptogenesis which support regeneration. In addition, protective molecules such as neuroprotectin D1 are derived from DHA in response to cellular stress. Since DHA is anti-inflammatory by nature, and anti-inflammatory resolvins are also derived from DHA, it may help to reduce neuroinflammation caused by TBI as well.

Surprisingly, there is currently a complete lack of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) for use of omega-3 fatty acid supplements as a treatment for TBI. Evidence is largely anecdotal so far, but a few connected case studies suggest strong treatment potential. In 2010, a teenager got into a car accident and suffered severe TBI with diffuse axonal injury that the head neurosurgeon thought would be lethal. By day 10, he was in a permanent vegetative state. Based on a previous treatment success for a man who had survived a mining explosion, the teenager was given 20g of n-3FA daily. He was weaned off the ventilator by day 21, and went home 4 months later. Then, a mother with an 8-year old daughter who had been in a comatose condition for 82 days from brain injury saw this story on TV- she asked her doctors to try the same treatment, and her daughter was discharged one month later.

Of course, a benefit vs. risk analysis should also be considered regarding the use of fatty acid supplements for treatment of TBI. Side effects, if present, are generally mild and short term, with the only other risk cited by the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health being a possible association with prostate cancer (studies have had conflicting findings). The average Western diet is highly pro-inflammatory, and it is likely that many of us have a deficiency of omega- 3 fatty acids that could increase susceptibility for TBI. For this reason, supplementation may not be a bad idea for prevention as well as treatment, or even to support our brain’s functioning in general.

While there are no published RCTs that examine treatment potential of omega-3 fatty acids to date, three (1, 2, 3) new trials have been in progress since 2019! This should help clarify both the safety and efficacy of these supplements, possibly paving the way for their incorporation into treatment plans and offering added protection from damage to our brains. This, in turn, this could help reduce the risk of sports that many people love.

I decided to tack on a neuroscience minor my sophomore year here at Concordia and had always planned on taking the drugs and behavior course instead of this one as one of my electives. When senior year rolled around and I noticed that drugs and behavior was not going to be offered in the Fall of 2020 and I became nervous as I knew deep down, I was going to have to do the inevitable and earn my neuroscience minor through this course. After speaking to students who had previously taken the course, to Dr. Mach, and while I look back at this class at the end of the semester, I realize just how lucky I was to be able to be a part of this class. This course is like none other and having the opportunity to take a course that is unlike any other science class during my time at Concordia is something that I have found to be extremely valuable. Not to mention how I was able to take it my senior year, and therefore bring with all of the tools and knowledge I had acquired from previous classes that were able to be integrated together for this class alone.

So, what do I mean by saying that this class is like none other? Instead of lecturing over chapter from a textbook or going into lab, I was able to read scientific journals regarding some of the most recent studies revolving around topics such as Alzheimer’s Disease, Obesity, Addiction, and more! This was a discussion-based class, so each day during the week, we would be able to discuss class-wide, one-on-one, and in groups on thoughts about the literature, questions we had, and even getting the chance to relate these issues to broader concepts for our community and the world! If that doesn’t make a case for a capstone experience, I’m not sure I’d know what does.

Having the opportunity to discuss scientific literature was both challenging and rewarding. Challenging, in a sense of how this is really the only course that I’m aware of that does anything like this, so you do not have much prior experience. Also, there is still so much future research that is needed, leading to many unanswered questions and thoughts. It is rewarding, however, even due to some of these challenges. It pushed me to not only incorporate new strategies on thinking but to also speak like a scientist and some of their possible thought processes while encountering these relevant problems we face. I was able to develop more of a voice for myself through all of the discussion that took place over the semester and this is something that I will definitely bring with me to future classes and careers as I continue to fine-tune it. Being able to take this with many familiar faces in the course also helps the discussion part of the class be so effective and enjoyable.

Having the ability to research specific questions for our Wednesday “speed-dating” sessions, group discussions on Fridays, and the blog posts all worked together and complimented one another when it came to how effective these parts of the course incorporated connections with the science of signaling all the way to the humanity and ethical concerns that all must be accounted for especially for the careers that many of us are heading into. The blog posts allowed me to grow as a writer, and also become someone who has specifically developed the skill to deduce complex concepts and ideas into a more general language and explanation that makes it easier for the majority of individuals to grasp and understand. This class encouraged me to develop a much broader thought process when it comes to problem solving and everything that goes into the continual efforts to advance the field of science.

In such a short amount of time, this class has left an impact on me that I know will exponentially increase my skills in the future as a leader through communicative interactions that establish connections with others and critical thinking towards problems we face in science that are often not just black and white answers. This course to me has been the epitome of what a capstone course at Concordia is all about. The experience this course provides through interactions with students who all have their niche in a variety of majors and lived experiences is one of the many factors that contribute to just how rich this course becomes. As I write this, I am struck with similar feelings from when I found out I would be needing to take this course, except the feelings are no longer fear and anxiety but rather one that is bittersweet because unfortunately now it is inevitably time for this course to end. Although the door for this course is closing, the memories, experience, and learning is here to stay and live on through all of my future endeavors.

While we often like to think of music as simply an art that we appreciate for its aesthetic value, most of us use music as a ‘tool’ to regulate our needs in one way or another. Despite this, we’re not always aware of the direct impact it has on us neurologically. A review article by Chanda and Levitin in 2013 describes some of the most scientifically backed benefits of music on the brain, comprising four main areas of research: reward, motivation and pleasure; stress and arousal; immunity; and social affiliation. I will also discuss another potential neurological effect that music has, as well as an intriguing musical ability that is not well understood. 

To briefly summarize these aspects of neurological impact, music has been found to trigger our reward systems through activation of dopamine and endogenous (made naturally within our bodies) opioid release. This can serve to inhibit feelings of stress or anxiety temporarily, and further motivate us to listen to music through reinforcement. Regarding stress and arousal, certain types of music- mainly slow tempo, low pitch- can reduce stress and arousal in individuals, very possibly through a reduction of cortisol levels along the hypothalamic-pituitary (HPA) axis of the brain. This effect has been indicated to help protect against neurotoxic effects of chronic stress. Both of these aspects, reward and stress/arousal, have also been suggested to be behind lowered requirements of analgesia after painful surgeries when the patient listens to music. 

Music may also impact the immune system, with studies suggesting that it could enhance our bodies’ immune functioning through increasing molecules that support the immune system and decreasing molecules that counteract it, although it’s not entirely clear what is mediating this effect. Finally, Chanda and Levitin provide an overview for the effects of music on social affiliation, asserting that music may help to establish and maintain social bonds through its impact on oxytocin, vasopressin, and endogenous opioids. 

A lesser known but notable impact that music has on the brain is the synchronization of brain stem neurons with tempo. As it turns out, humans have an innate ability to ‘entrain’, or simultaneously activate, neurons in our brainstem with those in our motor system through the tempo of music. Essentially, this means that when you hear a steady rhythm, it not only activates your auditory system, but automatically engages your motor system as well, even if you’re not physically moving. 

This function does have clinical importance, with research showing that rhythmic entrainment of motor function can significantly improve recovery of mobility in patients with neurological diseases, including stroke, Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, and cerebral palsy. Quite coincidentally, the movie I watched while writing this blog showed an example of this. In the 2010 film The King’s Speech, a future king with a stammer sees a speech therapist, and is without a stutter for the first time when he speaks while listening to music with headphones on. Part of this strategy was to make it so he couldn’t hear himself talk, but musical entrainment could very possibly play a role as well, smoothing out the actions of muscles necessary to control speech.

As a musician, I find the potential impacts that music can have on health or wellbeing an especially critical area of research going forward. Music may not be the cure for cancer, or for anything, but it may offer reduction of motor symptoms in certain neurological diseases, among other potential therapeutic uses. Future research will hopefully not only uncover new impacts of music on the brain, but strengthen our understanding of current findings through reducing common limitations of confounding distraction variables and locus of control issues. At the very least, listening to that song on repeat every time you’re sad or jammin to tunes while you jog won’t kill ya.