Cobbers on the Brain – Student Commentary on the Neurological Sciences

We are our Brain’s Protector

Posted on February 15, 2026 by agriffi1 / 0 Comment

Nobody wants to suffer from Alzheimer’s disease, but what is there to do about it but hope it doesn’t happen to you? However, research shows that there are things we can do to delay this disease from impacting us. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is being called “type 3 diabetes.” Here we will explore why it has been given this name, what is occurring in a brain with AD, and the research on prevention and treatment. [1]

Symptoms of AD

Outwardly, symptoms of AD include difficulties with memory, concentrating, reasoning, thinking, suitable decision making, and planning, as well as changes in personality and behavior. [2]

For more information about how the symptoms of AD present click here

Looking inside the brain

AD is a neurodegenerative disease, meaning neurons and cells in the brain die and brain matter deteriorates. The primary characteristic of AD is neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid-ß plaques. These are basically gunk within and between cells that prevents signals from being able to be sent effectively. It is like when your gutter has leaves clogging it up and blocking water from flowing, but instead of water, brain signals are prevented from continuing to the next cell. Neuroinflammation also plays a large role in AD. [1]

Figure 1: Neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid-ß plaques [3]

Figure 2: Neurodegeneration of the brain in AD [4]

Type 3 Diabetes

Patients with type 2 diabetes are at higher risk for developing AD. Research has shown, that like type 2 diabetes, AD is strongly related to insulin resistance (described below). [1]

Insulin

We most commonly hear about insulin in relation to diabetes. When our blood sugar level is elevated, insulin is responsible for helping cells to absorb this glucose, lowering blood sugar levels. [5] Insulin is important in many other functions as well including cell growth, how the cell uses and produces energy, cell communication, and cognition. [1]

Insulin Resistance

Insulin resistance is a dysfunction of insulin signaling. Insulin does not interact with receptors, causing signaling as often and these receptors are less sensitive to the insulin, so, it takes more insulin for the same effects that took less previously to occur. In AD, this occurs in the brain and leads to neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid-ß plaques, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. [1]

Prevention

Similar to type 2 diabetes, diet, exercise, and lifestyle play a huge role in the development and progression of AD. Our guts and brains are closely connected through multiple pathways in our body, and limiting fat in diet and eating less processed food can decrease your chances of developing AD as well as many other diseases. [1]

Treatment

Due to its similarities to type 2 diabetes, anti-diabetic drugs are a potential treatment for AD, as well as directly administering insulin to the brain. [1] The potential to dissolve/remove the neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid-ß plaques is also being investigated. There are many aspects and systems involved the progression of AD and it effects a large number of individuals, therefore it continues to be a topic of heavy research for treatment and prevention.

Footnotes

[1] Akhtar, A., & Sah, S. P. (2020). Insulin signaling pathway and related molecules: Role in neurodegeneration and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurochemistry International, 135, 104707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2020.104707

[2] Alzheimer’s disease—Symptoms and causes. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved February 14, 2026, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alzheimers-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20350447

[3] Armstrong, B. (2025, February 24). Understanding Plaques and Tangles in Alzheimer’s Disease. Kinesiology. https://kin.uncg.edu/2025/02/24/plaques-and-tangles/

[4] Alzheimer’s Disease Fact Sheet. (2023, April 5). National Institute on Aging. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-and-dementia/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet

[5] Lannon, R. (2024). How Stress Hormones Affect Blood Sugar Levels in Diabetes. African Journal of Diabetes Medicine, 32(5). https://doi.org/10.54931/AJDM-32.5.7

[6] Tan, H.-E. (2023). The microbiota-gut-brain axis in stress and depression. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1151478

Health

Rest isn’t an optional pause: Concussion Recovery

Posted on February 11, 2026 by cborrud / 0 Comment

Rest after a Traumatic Brain Injury is not just about symptom relief. It’s a vital biological process that allows the brain to repair itself. Without rest, the brain remains in a vulnerable state where healing systems cannot function properly. A main factor that influences this vital rest period is age. [1]

The Brains Quiet Recovery

The brains repair process occurs quietly, on an ionic level, making it difficult to completely determine when someone is back to normal. Recovery doesn’t end when symptoms fade. [2] There is a common blanket statement often told that rest is important the first 24-48 hours post brain injury. [3] This recommendation is supported by current concussion management guidelines. A brain cannot operate on a universal recovery timeline and happens differently in every individual. Some neural systems may stabilize quickly, while others remain the same or even decline.[4] This provokes the question of if we can’t see brain recovery, how do we decide when someone is truly healed?

The topic of rest after a mild Traumatic Brain Injury is still being researched because of all the complexities involved. It’s particularly difficult because a TBI occurs invisibly and standard brain scans can look normal even after a severe injury. [5]

Instead, clinicians rely on cognitive and behavioral assessments such as the Glasgow Coma Scale. It is used to assess a person’s level of consciousness after a brain injury. There is also The Rancho Los Amigos (RLA) Cognitive Scale which uses a 10 level assessment to measure recovery. These tools are useful early on but it does not measure subtle cognitive changes that characterize recovery from mild Traumatic Brain Injury.

This image was source from Buddhi Clinic

The Role Age Plays

Recent findings on Brain blood barrier disruptions across all ages and the biology of rest help explain why recovery timelines of recovery vary so widely. After a traumatic brain injury, the brain undergoes a metabolic cascade. This cascade generally follows the same pattern, however the duration and intensity of these disruptions in the brain are unique to each person.[4]

A longitudinal study conducted by Marquez de la Plata CD et al. found that older patients show greater decline in the first 5 years after a TBI while the most improved were the youngest patients. [6]

Limited understanding of TBI recovery can cause people to ignore recommendations to rest while also contributing to under-diagnosis thereby having negative effects including a reduced quality of life and even death. [7] Therefore, it is vital to promote individualized recovery rather than a one-size-fits-all recommendation. Increasing understanding of recovery post TBI can also help to develop age related recovery guidelines. This understanding of recovery affects how people make decisions at school, work and in healthcare.

The most important thing to remember about a traumatic brain injury is that recovery doesn’t end when symptoms fade. After a concussion, the brain is quietly working to restore its protective barriers and reduce inflammation. Returning to school or work too quickly can prolong symptoms or increase vulnerability to re-injury. Rest isn’t an optional pause- it’s the biological window that makes recovery possible.

Diagram sourced from Harvest Counseling and Wellness

ChatGPT was used in the formation of this post

de la Plata, C. M., Hart, T., Hammond, F. M., Frol, A., Hudak, A., Harper, C. R., O’Neil-Pirozzi, T., Whyte, J., Carlile, M., & Diaz-Arrastia, R. (2008a). Impact of age on long-term recovery from traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(5), 896–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2007.12.030
Wilson, L., Stewart, W., Dams-O’Connor, K., Diaz-Arrastia, R., Horton, L., Menon, D. K., & Polinder, S. (2017). The chronic and evolving neurological consequences of traumatic brain injury. The Lancet. Neurology, 16(10), 813–825. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30279-X
Guidelines for recovery. (n.d.). Concussion Alliance. Retrieved February 10, 2026, from https://www.concussionalliance.org/recovery-guide
Giza, C. C., & Hovda, D. A. (2014). The new neurometabolic cascade of concussion. Neurosurgery, 75(Supplement 4), S24–S33. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000505
Lee, B., & Newberg, A. (2005). Neuroimaging in traumatic brain imaging. NeuroRx, 2(2), 372–383. https://doi.org/10.1602/neurorx.2.2.372
Marquez de la Plata, C. D., Hart, T., Hammond, F. M., Frol, A. B., Hudak, A., Harper, C. R., O’Neil-Pirozzi, T. M., Whyte, J., Carlile, M., & Diaz-Arrastia, R. (2008). Impact of age on long-term recovery from traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(5), 896–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2007.12.030
National Academies of Sciences, E., Division, H. and M., Services, B. on H. C., Policy, B. on H. S., Care, C. on A. P. in T. B. I. R. and, Matney, C., Bowman, K., & Berwick, D. (2022). Traumatic brain injury prevention and awareness. In Traumatic Brain Injury: A Roadmap for Accelerating Progress. National Academies Press (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK580082/

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CTE: Not for You or Me

Posted on February 11, 2026 by ehunt4 / 2 Comments

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, commonly known as CTE, is a neurodegenerative disease caused by repeated impacts to the head that lead to devastating mental and physical consequences. People with CTE struggle with emotional problems like aggression, depression and anxiety, cognitive decline and physical decline resembling Parkinson’s (1). But the worst part of CTE is that the victims do not know that they have it, as it can only be diagnosed after death through an autopsy. This leads to misdiagnosis of diseases like Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s, and a lack of understanding of the behavior of the person with CTE while they are living, often leading to interpersonal troubles. There are currently no treatments for CTE as it is a relatively new concept and there are many questions still unanswered. Therefore, CTE is scary not only because of what it can do to you, but also because there is nothing you can do about it. CTE is devastating disease for patients and their loved ones, that is why you should do everything you can to prevent developing it, and the first step to doing that is to understand how CTE works.

How does CTE work?

To understand how CTE works we must talk about a protein called tau. This protein is essential to stabilizing the structure of neurons. When someone has repeated head impacts, structures that have tau n them gets stretched out, and our body’s response phosphorylates the tau in the wrong way. When broken down into simpler terms, when you experience a head impact, it causes tau proteins to become loose from the microtubules. Once tau is loose, it is considered pathological, essentially meaning it is not good and can cause disease. Due to the repeated head impacts, this issue with tau phosphorylation never resolves and leads to the spread of disease even between injuries. Eventually, these loose tau proteins start to aggregate together and create something known neurofibrillary tangles, or NFTs for short. These NFTs act as barriers for cellular transport, almost like a spider web that things that are essential for cellular survival get caught in. When this happens, the cell cannot function properly and leads to the starvation of the cell and eventually degeneration and cell death. (2)

What can you do to prevent CTE?

While CTE can develop in anyone, most people who develop it are military personnel who worked with heavy explosives, such as artillerymen, and athletes of contact sports like football, soccer or hockey. Football players are especially at risk, experiencing multiple head impacts every time they play. A study by Boston University examined the brains of football players and found that 99% of former NFL players, 91% of college players and 21% of high school players had CTE. While the study experienced sample bias, with those who donated their brains having shown some signs of CTE rather than a wider population of players, these findings are still extremely alarming.

The only thing you can do to avoid CTE is to avoid head impacts altogether, although this isn’t very realistic for those who play contact sports (3). Finding ways to reduce the frequency of head hits and preventing more impactful hits that result in concussions is essential to avoiding CTE. One study (keep in mind it was not peer-reviewed) conducted by the NFL found that wearing a guardian cap reduced concussions by 50%. Also, making sure your gear is fitted properly is essential to maximizing the force the equipment absorbs. Another way to prevent CTE is to properly recover from concussions. One of the hardest things for an athlete to do it sit out and watch, especially when they feel more or less fine. While you may feel better after a couple days, it takes 2-4 weeks for a concussion to fully recover and returning to action while you are still recovering is not only detrimental for your recovery, but also a risk factor for CTE (4).

Be scared, but not too scared

CTE is a very scary disease for athletes and their parents. While you should definitely do everything you can to avoid repeated head impacts, it is important to remember that everybody experiences a countless number of head impacts throughout their lives. Constantly worrying about every hit your head takes will do you no good. Also, if you are a football player, it can be haunting to hear what CTE is and what it does to you but the majority of people who play football live long and fulfilling lives. It is important to wear protective equipment, wear the equipment properly, and to take the time to recover after getting a concussion. In all, be aware of CTE and its effects, but don’t let it stop you from living your life to the fullest!

Lakhan, S. E., & Kirchgessner, A. (2012). Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: the dangers of getting “dinged”. SpringerPlus, 1, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-1-2
Iqbal, K., Liu, F., Gong, C. X., Alonso, A.delC., & Grundke-Iqbal, I. (2009). Mechanisms of tau-induced neurodegeneration. Acta neuropathologica, 118(1), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-009-0486-3
Cleveland Clinic. (2025). Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17686-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-cte
Giza, C. (2021). Recovering from a concussion: 5 tips for your child’s successful healing. UCLA Health. https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/recovering-from-a-concussion-5-tips-for-your-childs-successful-healing

Health

Repetition is Not the Answer: The Danger of Multiple Concussions

Posted on February 10, 2026 by agriffi1 / 0 Comment

Underlying Physiology

There are many underlying physiological functions involved in concussions. Increased amounts of calcium and sodium ions enter cells in the brain, leading to problems in structure of the cell and communication between cells. When everything is functioning properly, calcium is heavily regulated in the brain, as small amounts cause large effects, so this increase can cause drastic changes. The problem that will be focused on here, is the energy crisis that occurs within cells following a concussion. [1]

Energy crisis

Cells want to keep everything balanced and do so by trying to maintain homeostasis. Under normal conditions, ions are constantly flowing in and out of cells, and cells have pumps to help them get their ions where they are “supposed” to be. However, concussions cause an influx of ions (described above), which forces these pumps to work extra hard to try to maintain homeostasis. These pumps require energy to do their jobs, so the energy of the cell gets depleted and the cell enters “energy crisis.” To help deal with the excess calcium, the mitochondria, which are responsible to help create the energy used by the pumps, of the cell store extra calcium which causes mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, this “energy crisis” due to the pumps using a lot of energy is worsened by mitochondrial dysfunction not producing energy as effectively. [1]

Click here to learn more about mitochondrial dysfunction after a concussion

Continued Vulnerability

The energy crisis period varies between individuals and is especially dependent on age. While an individual is in this period, they are a lot more likely to suffer from a second concussion. The brain has not had time to fully recover from the first concussion, and while energy crisis is ongoing, a second concussion is more likely and causes more severe and long-lasting effects. This is why avoiding high risk situations, like contact sports, are important for a period following the injury. [1]

Detection and Measurement

There is no current way to accurately measure concussions on a physiological level that is feasible for use of athletes or in other quick situations. Current concussion protocols cannot ensure that an individual did not enter or is not still in a susceptible state due to this energy crisis. Further research into detection impaired brain activity is crucial for enhancing concussion protocols and protecting athletes’ brains. [1]

Check out the Scat6 used for concussion assessment

Oxidative Stress

Balance is very important in our brains. For proper function, we need the “right” amount of everything involved, and problems occur when we have too little or too much of something. Oxidative stress describes a specific imbalance that occurs. In our brain we have free radicals and antioxidants. Both are important for normal functioning, however, when the balance becomes off and we have more free radicals, it leads to many problems. Free radicals are unstable; they are looking for an electron. Under normal conditions, antioxidants give one of their electrons to free radicals. However, when these molecules are no longer balanced, free radicals search the body for other molecules to steal this electron from which causes harm to cells and tissues. [2] Concussions, especially repeated concussion are linked to oxidative stress which is a key player in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). [1]

Future Risks

Figure 1. Degeneration of brain in CTE. [3]

When an individual sufferers from a single concussion, the negative effects – such as headache, slower processing, difficulties in thinking, and slower reactions – seem to fully recover with time. However, when an individual has repeated concussions, especially in a short time period, effects are more severe and longer-lasting. Repeated concussions are linked to neurodegeneration and development of CTE.

Therefore, it is important to keep athletes on the sideline to allow the brain time to fully recover so that permanent damage does not occur. Researching better ways to detect impaired brain activities post-concussion is essential for evaluating if someone has a concussion and at what point their brain has made a full recovery and they are no longer at high risk for suffering another concussion. [1]

[1] Giza, C. C., & Hovda, D. A. (2014). The New Neurometabolic Cascade of Concussion. Neurosurgery, 75(Supplement 4), S24–S33. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000505

[2] What Is Oxidative Stress? (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved February 3, 2026, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/oxidative-stress

[3] What Causes CTE? (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved February 9, 2026, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17686-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-cte

Health

One Hit, a Lifetime of Change: Why Concussions Matter in the Developing Brain

Posted on February 10, 2026 by jwolf6 / 0 Comment

Imagine a child taking a hard fall off a bike or a teenager colliding with another player on the football field. They might feel dizzy, sit out for a bit, and then seem fine. But inside their brain, a hidden chain reaction may have started that could affect how they think, feel, and learn for years to come. Therefore, understanding traumatic brain injury (TBI) and concussion, especially in children, is not just a medical issue, but a public health issue that affects families, schools, and society as a whole.

The Science: What Happens in the Brain After a Concussion or TBI

Concussion triggers a complex chain of chemical and metabolic events in the brain. Immediately after impact, neurons release large amounts of glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter. This overstimulation causes an ionic imbalance, with potassium leaving cells and calcium flooding in. To restore balance, neurons use large amounts of ATP which leads to a metabolic crisis because blood flow and glucose delivery can’t keep up. Figure 1 shows this cascade of events. This mismatch between energy demand and supply makes brain cells vulnerable to more damage and explains why repeated concussions are so dangerous [1]. To learn more about this process more in depth, click here.

Figure 1: The cellular changes concussion and TBI. Concussion causes ion imbalances, excessive glutamate release, and high energy demand. The neuron enters an energy crisis as ATP is depleted, leading to altered signaling and cell death [1].

Why This is Even More Important in Children and Adolescents

While concussions are serious for adults, they are uniquely dangerous for children because their brains are still developing. TBI is the leading cause of disability and death in children ages 0-4 and adolescents 15-19, and around 145,000 children and adolescents live with long lasting cognitive, physical, or behavioral impairments after a TBI. Children experience 1.1-1.9 million sports and recreation related concussions every year in the United States, making this a widespread issue [3].

During childhood, the brain is undergoing synaptic pruning, myelination, programmed cell death, neurotransmitter regulation, and white/gray matter differentiation [2]. These process shape learning, memory, and behavior. A brain injury during these critical periods can permanently alter how neural circuits are built, which may affect cognition and mental health long-term.

Children are also biologically more vulnerable to brain injury because their brains are still developing and not yet balanced. In the brain, there are excitatory signals that make neurons more active and inhibitory signals that calm neurons down. In children, the excitatory systems mature earlier than the inhibitory systems, meaning their brains are naturally more “turned up” and less able to control too much activity. After concussion, large amounts of glutamate are released, which overstimulates brain cells. Because children’s brains are already more excitable, this overstimulation can become more intense and damaging. Pediatric brain injuries also involve higher activity of NMDA receptors (which amplify excitatory signals) and delayed development of GABA signaling (which normally calms the brain). This imbalance makes children more likely to experience seizures or even epilepsy after a TBI [4].

Long Term Impacts: More Than Just a Headache and What This Means for the Public

Effects of childhood TBI are not limited to the immediate injury. Long term outcomes can include:

Behavioral effects: anxiety, depression, mood swings, ADHD-like symptoms, and autism-like behaviors
Cognitive effects: memory problems, attention deficits, difficulty with problem-solving, and increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases later in life
Physical effects: headaches, dizziness, fatigue, and sensory disturbances [5]

Children also take longer to recover from concussions than adults, often around 4 weeks or more, due to ongoing myelination and vulnerability of developing axons. Therefore, the public should care because concussions are not just temporary injuries, they can reshape a child’s brain during critical developmental windows. Understanding the neurometabolic cascade helps explain why rest, gradual return to activity, and modern “active recovery” approaches are so important [6].

Parents, educators, and coaches should recognize that preventing and properly treating childhood TBI is an investment in lifelong cognitive and mental health. Increased awareness, better helmet and sports safety policies, and early intervention can significantly reduce long-term issues from TBIs.

References

[1] C. C. Giza and D. A. Hovda, “The New Neurometabolic Cascade of Concussion,” Neurosurgery, vol. 75, no. 4, pp. S24–S33, Oct. 2014, doi: https://doi.org/10.1227/neu.0000000000000505.

[2] K. N. Parker, M. H. Donovan, K. Smith, and L. J. Noble-Haeusslein, “Traumatic Injury to the Developing Brain: Emerging Relationship to Early Life Stress,” Frontiers in Neurology, vol. 12, Aug. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.708800.

[3] “Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury,” Asha.org, 2016. https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/pediatric-traumatic-brain-injury/?srsltid=AfmBOorKNcIjIYe7nnJHIYbXQxlVKQBlzOrqvx7t_IJmC5hWi-v39zwR#collapse_4

[4] S. Agrawal et al., “Paediatric traumatic brain injury: unique population and unique challenges,” Brain, Dec. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awaf459.

[5] “Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) in Children,” Luriechildrens.org, 2024. https://www.luriechildrens.org/en/specialties-conditions/traumatic-brain-injury/

[6] B. Johnson, “Kids experience concussion symptoms 3 times longer than adults – Find a DO | Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine,” Find a DO | Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine, Oct. 2018. https://findado.osteopathic.org/kids-experience-concussion-symptoms-3-times-longer-than-adults (accessed Feb. 10, 2026).

Uncategorized

More Than a Bump: What Really Happens in the Brain After a Concussion

Posted on February 10, 2026 by edoty / 0 Comment

Concussions and Neuroinflammation: What Happens After Impact

When someone experiences a concussion, also known as a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), the damage is not always apparent through symptoms. Instead, much of the injury occurs on a chemical level inside the brain. After the initial impact, researchers have observed multiple pathologies to TBIs, including ionic flux, glutamate release, energy crisis, cytoskeletal damage, axonal dysfunction, and altered neurotransmission.[1] To read more about these processes, click here. One of the most important pathologies involved is neuroinflammation.

Many people assume inflammation in the brain only happens when the blood-brain barrier is damaged, allowing harmful substances to leak in. However, neuroinflammation can occur independently of changes in blood-brain barrier permeability. Brain cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, can trigger an inflammatory response and secrete cytokines on their own. These cells become activated after a concussion and invoke an immune response in the brain, including neuroinflammation.[2]

The Brain’s Inflammatory Response After a Concussion:

Inflammation following a mild traumatic brain injury can be either beneficial or detrimental, depending on how long it lasts and how intense it becomes. In the early stages, inflammation can help protect neurons and support recovery. Problems arise when this response becomes excessive or prolonged.

Several cytokines play major roles in this process:[3]

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is part of a family of cytokines, although the most important forms are IL-1α and IL-1β. IL-1α spikes immediately after a concussion, while IL-1β increases gradually over several days. The levels of these cytokines depend on the severity of the trauma. IL-1β also stimulates the release of other pro-inflammatory molecules, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha. When IL-1 is hypersecreted, it can create a toxic inflammatory environment that can result in cell death in severe cases.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) rises rapidly and usually returns to normal within 24 hours of the initial injury. TNF-α can also be protective or harmful. Its response depends on which receptor it binds to. Binding to the p55 receptor is associated with pathological effects, while binding to the p75 receptor supports neuroprotection.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) has both pro- and anti-inflammatory roles and is stimulated by TNF-α. High levels of IL-6 have been detected for weeks after severe injury. One benefit of IL-6 is that it increases the production of nerve growth factor in astrocytes, which helps suppress TNF-α and IL-1β. This suppression keeps levels from rising too high and causing neurotoxicity.

Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that peaks within 24 hours of injury and promotes tissue repair by suppressing inflammation. However, excessive levels can interfere with the brain’s own repair mechanisms and increase vulnerability to infection.

If you are interested in reading more about the involvement and effects of these cytokines in neuroinflammation, click here.

Why This Matters:

Although neuroinflammation can be harmful, it is also essential for neuronal growth and recovery after concussion and can even be used as a promising treatment option. Understanding the timing and interaction of these cytokines suggests that future treatments may focus on carefully timed combinations of pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules to reduce long-term neurological deficits after mTBI.[4]

[1] Giza and Hovda, “The New Neurometabolic Cascade of Concussion.”

[2] Patterson and Holahan, “Understanding the Neuroinflammatory Response Following Concussion to Develop Treatment Strategies.”

[3] Patterson and Holahan, “Understanding the Neuroinflammatory Response Following Concussion to Develop Treatment Strategies.”

[4] Patterson and Holahan, “Understanding the Neuroinflammatory Response Following Concussion to Develop Treatment Strategies.”

Disease

The Protein that Tangles the Brain: How Brain Injuries Affect Tau

Posted on February 9, 2026 by kleppke / 0 Comment

TBIs & Tau

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are high impact forces that cause changes in brain function. Even mild TBIs effect the brain, and without proper recovery, lead to devastating effects. One of the main changes that occurs in the brain after TBIs is how the protein tau is regulated. Tau is crucial in maintaining the structure of brain cells (microtubules) and allowing them to signal properly (3). TBIs effect tau’s binding to microtubules by causing an increased level of phosphate binding to tau, destabilizing signaling (2). The brain has ways to identify these flawed proteins and degrade them, but this mechanism is also damaged by TBIs. These hyperphosphorylated tau proteins form clumps (aggregates) separate from the microtubules, seen in figure 1.

Figure 1: Healthy microtubules are stabilized by tau proteins whereas microtubules in those with Alzheimer’s don’t have this stabilization. Instead tau proteins become tangles separate from the microtubule (image from https://alzheimersnewstoday.com/news/tau-protein-leads-to-neuronal-death-in-alzheimers/).

Disease & Difficulties

Unfortunately, over 5 million people in the United States are currently living with neurodegenerative diseases resulting from TBIs. Dysregulated tau proteins play a major role in causing these devastating effects. The tau aggregates that form develop into neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which multiply and spread throughout the brain (5). These NFTs are linked to severe tauopathy neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and CTE. This video shows the process of tau forming these NFTs.

As with all TBIs, these changes in the brain are incredibly difficult to detect and predict effects of until it is too late. A range of factors, such as age, severity of injury, genetics, and recovery time and methods, contribute to how an individual’s brain is effected and can rebound. Prevention and early intervention are weak areas across all long term diseases associated with TBIs. Research gaps include how to target and counteract tau dysregulation and how to repair the damage it causes.

Success in Science

Therefore, current scientific research is working to bridge these gaps in research. They have had lots of success on this topic, using tau as a tool for diagnostic tests. By detecting levels of the hyperphosphorylated tau protein, medical experts can estimate the levels of NFTs in the brain to accurately diagnose Alzheimer’s disease (6). They have also found PET scans (shown in figure 2) to be useful in detecting the progression of neurodegeneration in the brain. These scans detect the levels of NFTs and show where they are concentrated in the brain. If a TBI occurred, the area of impact will be where the NFTs are most concentrated (4).

These advances are useful in diagnostics and monitoring neurodegeneration, but lack use in prevention or repair. Research on TBIs, tau, and all neurodegenerative disease are ongoing. Future directions in science would lead towards earlier detection of tau dysregulation, genetic factors correlating with the brains resilience, and TBI prevention methods that would better reduce the risk of neurodegeneration diseases.

Figure 2: Healthy brains show consistent imaging throughout whereas Alzheimer brains show clear hot spots where NFTs are concentrated (image from https://danielleal.pt/en/sleep-deprivation-and-alzheimers-disease/).

Conclusion

TBIs can have devastating impacts within the brain that may go unnoticed until long-term heath symptoms reveal themselves. Tau dysregulation, specifically, damages brain stability, communication, and cognitive ability leading to neurodegenerative diseases. Though neurovegetative diseases are becoming increasingly common, scientific research and application are working to protect against the effects of TBIs and better repair the damage they cause.

More information about the various effects TBIs have on the brain can be found in this research: 2014 The_New_Neurometabolic_Cascade_of_Concussion.3(1) (1)

References

[1] Chauhan N. B. 2014. Chronic neurodegenerative consequences of traumatic brain injury. Restorative neurology and neuroscience, 32(2), 337–365. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-130354

[2] Giza, C. C., & Hovda, D. A. 2014. The New Neurometabolic Cascade of Concussion. Congress of Neurological Surgeons. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000505

[3] Guo, T., Noble, W., & Hanger, D. P. 2017. Roles of tau protein in health and disease. Acta neuropathologica, 133(5), 665–704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-017-1707-9

[4] Jie, C., Trayer, V., Schibli, R., & Mu, L. 2021. Tauvid: The First FDA-Approved PET Tracer for Imaging Tau Pathology in Alzheimer’s Disease. Pharmaceuticals. 14. 110. 10.3390/ph14020110.

[5] Martin, S. P., & Leeman-Markowski, B. A. 2024. Proposed mechanisms of tau: relationships to traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy. Frontiers in neurology, 14, 1287545. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1287545

[6] Schneider T. 2025. Highly accurate blood test diagnoses Alzheimer’s disease, measures extent of dementia. WashU Medicine. https://medicine.washu.edu/news/highly-accurate-blood-test-diagnoses-alzheimers-disease-measures-extent-of-dementia/#:~:text=In%20the%20study%2C%20the%20researchers,Alzheimer’s%20disease%20progression%20from%20blood

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My Journey: 5 Goals for Liberal Learning

Posted on May 2, 2025 by jcopiske / 0 Comment

INSTILL A LOVE FOR LEARNING

Time is the most valuable thing we have, and as I approach the final week of my undergraduate studies in Neuroscience and Psychology at Concordia. I’ve realized that time moves fast. I’ve always been deeply interested in the brain, which is arguably the most vital organ in our bodies. This curiosity has driven both my academic and personal growth. My experiences this semester have only reinforced my commitment to understanding the complexities of the human mind. It is important to be passionate about learning because it curates a lasting dedication to learning. I believe if you’re passionate and driven, you can accomplish anything.

DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING: DISCIPLINARY, INTERDISCIPLINARY, AND INTERCULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

This neurochemistry course has been a great class in concluding my neuroscience degree, Neuroscience gives the opportunity to understand disciplinary, interdisciplinary, and intercultural perspectives. Neurochemistry goes beyond understanding the biochemical signals of neural networks by application to real-world problems, I’ve learned to appreciate how these scientific discoveries relate with intercultural narratives and ethical debates. I have had the opportunity within my five years here to engage with diverse viewpoints. Whether that is exploring genetic influences on behavior or examining the societal implications of mental health research. The articles assigned over the semester have opened my mind to new possibilities. I feel as if I have had the opportunity to learn beyond the textbooks and lectures, which contributed to my learning

Class discussion has proven to be invaluable with the ability to listen and converse with others. Learning is not confined to textbooks. It thrives on curiosity and the willingness to see connections across different fields and cultures.

CULTIVATE: CULTURAL, ETHICAL, PHYSICAL AND SPIRITUAL SELF UNDERSTANDING

Learning at a liberal arts institution like Concordia has meant more than just absorbing information. it has been about nurturing a cultural, ethical, physical, and spiritual self. Concordia gives the opportunity to speak and be heard. My journey in this class has pushed me to reflect on who I am and how I relate to the world around me. As well as the ethical responsibilities that come with scientific discovery. We have covered not only scientific deficits, but social deficits as well that contribute to the well-being of society. This reflective process has allowed me to develop a deeper self-understanding, encouraging me within my academic pursuits.

Cultivating education means engaging in a process that is as much about self-understanding as it is about acquiring knowledge. For me, this kind of learning is rooted in curiosity, resilience, and reflection.

Curiosity

Curiosity pushed me to look beyond the biochemical signals of neural networks and explore how these scientific insights relate to broader cultural narratives and ethical debates. Curiosity sparks meaning which drives me to pursue a deeper meaning behind the data and science.

Resilience

There is value in resilience, much like how the brain has the ability to adapt to its environment, I have learned throughout my stay at Concordia that I have to learn to adjust my approach when confronted with complex problems and changing ideas. Resilience has become the driving force behind my efforts to understand intricate neural signals, diverse cultural narratives, and engage in ethical debates. It’s not just about bouncing back from setbacks; it’s about using each challenge as an opportunity to deepen my understanding and build my learning process. .

Reflection

Lifelong learning is a commitment. Every challenge is an opportunity to grow. It is important to question ideas and not just accept them as they are. Through reflection I can learn about the subject that is at hand, but also about myself and what I need to grow. In reflection I am evolving and changing my learning in a positive way.

DEVELOP FOUNDATIONAL SKILLS AND TRANSFERABLE INTELLUCTUAL CAPACITIES

The skills and knowledge gained in this class are important not only for my academic progress but, also for my future career as a neuroscience and psychology professional. Critical thinking, problem solving, and interdisciplinary communication has been utilized contributing to my learning and studying habits.

I have had the opportunity to learn through hands-on experiences and rigorous course content. Which have enabled me to develop a suite of foundational skills and knowledge that requires critical thinking, problem solving and interdisciplinary communication. These have been key skills that this course has taught me as I learned to analyze complex neuro-chemical signaling and interpret research papers. This experience encouraged me to ask critical questions and connect specific neuro-chemical findings with broader behavioral contexts.

These foundational skills are not confined to the classroom. They transfer to real world contexts, such as disruption in cellular signaling can lead to a serious disease such as cancer or conditions like autism. It provides an opportunity to appreciate the significance of analyzing issues at the molecular level.

ENCOURAGE RESPONSIBLE PARTICIPATION IN THE WORLD

In sum, this semester has not only expanded my intellectual capacities but also reinforced the importance of viewing every challenge as an opportunity to integrate multiple viewpoints. The integration of diverse disciplines has taught me that every academic challenge is an opportunity

Whether it was researching ethical dilemmas in neuro-chemical research or understanding the cultural implications science has. I learned that true education empowers us to take meaningful action in the world. As I move forward in my career, I carry with me the conviction that my knowledge and skills are tools for creating positive change, fostering collaboration, and addressing societal challenges with empathy and rigor.

In reflecting on all these experiences, I realize that the journey here at Concordia is much more than an accumulation of facts—it’s about igniting a deep-seated love for learning that fuels both personal growth and responsible global engagement. My studies in neurochemistry have not only equipped me with technical expertise but have also enriched my understanding of the human condition, preparing me to explore, question, and innovate in ways that honor both science and humanity.

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Feeding the Brain and the Soul: How Neurochemistry Changed the Way I See the World

Posted on May 2, 2025 by adebleye / 0 Comment

This semester has been nothing short of transformative. As I look back on my experience in the neurochemistry capstone course, I realize how much it has helped me grow—not just as a student, but as a thinker, a future health professional, and a more reflective person. When I enrolled in the class, I expected to learn about brain chemistry, neurotransmitters, and perhaps a few disorders. I didn’t expect that the discussions, the research, and the questions we asked would lead me to reimagine my relationship with learning, my goals for the future, and my role in the world around me.

One of the most eye-opening moments of the semester came when we studied metabolic syndrome. This paper wasn’t just scientific—it was deeply personal. I began to see how diet and lifestyle could influence not only physical health, but brain function and emotional regulation. For the first time, I started asking myself questions I had never considered before. What am I feeding my brain? How do my daily choices impact my long-term well-being? Learning about the biochemical effects of diet on cognition challenged me to reflect on how I could live a more fulfilling, sustainable life. It wasn’t just about the science—it was about applying that science to my life in meaningful ways.

That connection between the brain and the world kept coming up. Every topic we explored, from dopamine pathways to the role of inflammation in behavior, circled back to a larger truth: that we are all shaped by more than just biology. Our environment, our culture, and our experiences all play roles in the chemical makeup of our minds. This realization made me even more passionate about pursuing public health as my next step. I want to take what I’ve learned and give it back to the communities that raised me, by educating people about how their health is tied to both internal and external systems—especially those who might not have access to this kind of information. This class helped me see that science isn’t just about the lab or the textbook. It’s about people. It’s about lives.

Throughout the semester, I found myself developing skills that I know will stay with me far beyond college. I learned how to analyze dense research articles, interpret complex data, and make sense of experimental design. These skills helped me see the world differently. Now, when I come across a chart or a headline, I pause to ask deeper questions. What’s the source? What are the variables? What story is the data trying to tell? These habits have made me more critical, more thoughtful, and more curious. If I were to highlight one skill on my resume that I’ve strengthened the most, it would definitely be data analysis. The ability to break down research and extract meaningful insights is something I now feel confident doing—and something I’m excited to continue refining in graduate school.

What makes this class so memorable isn’t just the knowledge I gained, but the way it encouraged me to think across disciplines. Though it was grounded in neurochemistry, the course constantly pulled in ideas from psychology, nutrition, sociology, and even philosophy. We didn’t just learn about molecules—we asked what they meant for real people in real situations. This interdisciplinary approach helped me see problems from multiple perspectives. One example that stands out was when we discussed the biochemical effects of trauma. Instead of stopping at cortisol and amygdala function, we talked about how poverty, systemic racism, and lack of access to resources can trigger those same pathways. That kind of thinking—holistic, interconnected, and human—is the kind of thinking I want to bring into my work in public health.

More than anything, this class helped me understand myself. When we read about stress, addiction, and neurological imbalances, I sometimes saw my own experiences mirrored in the science. I thought about family members, about friends, about people in my community who live with challenges that are often dismissed or misunderstood. This sparked a sense of empathy and purpose in me that I hadn’t expected. It made me want to do more than just understand the brain. It made me want to use that understanding to advocate, to educate, and to care.

Being at a liberal arts college has played a huge role in shaping this mindset. I’ve come to value the freedom to explore, to ask questions, and to draw connections across subjects. The environment at Concordia has helped me see that learning doesn’t have to be rigid or one-dimensional. It can be dynamic, creative, and deeply personal. It has shown me that education is not just about knowledge, but about transformation. It is about becoming someone who engages thoughtfully with the world.

One of the most valuable things I’ve taken from this class is the ability to solve problems by drawing from multiple disciplines. When I’m faced with a challenge now, I no longer look for a single answer from a single field. I ask how biology, psychology, and social structures might all be playing a role. I look for intersections. That mindset is something I’ll carry with me into every future classroom, clinic, and community I serve.

This class didn’t just teach me about neurotransmitters. It taught me about people, purpose, and possibility. It reminded me that the brain is not just a network of neurons—it is a reflection of the environments we live in and the lives we lead. And most importantly, it reminded me that I have the tools to make a difference. That is what learning at Concordia has given me. And that is what I hope to pass on.

I also want to give a special thank you to Professor Mach for making this year a great one!

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Hi, but also Goodbye!

Posted on May 2, 2025 by rhurley1 / 0 Comment

As I begin and conclude just one last blog, I reflect upon my beloved experiences in being enrolled at Concordia college Moorhead. I have done this a few times already, but this time I will write upon this with focus on the campus’ goals. The campus has five goals they declare essential to students, to instill a love for learning in students, to develop foundational skills and transferable intellectual capacities to them, to grow an understanding of (disciplinary, interdisciplinary and intercultural) perspectives and their connections, to cultivate an examined (cultural, ethical, physical and spiritual) self-understanding, and to ensure responsible participation in the world.

Let us begin with the first goal of the school, to instill a love for learning in students. I recall with deep love a nostalgic feeling now upon entering and leaving each class. To be fair it very much became a routine eventually, as any repeated action eventually does, but this was not the sole reason for my beloved feeling to dig deep. The environment is comfortable and encouraging in the liberal classrooms, I almost never felt uncomfortable to ask and answer questions. All in all, I very much love to learn, and I will continue to pursue it.

Next, let us continue with the second goal of the school, to develop foundational skills and transferable intellectual capacities to them. I do not know where to begin with this one, not because Concordia College lacks in this department at all, but because there are a wide myriad of potentially applicable skills that I could potentially list that I do not know where to really begin listing; though, I will try now. There were basic and transferable skills and applicable knowledge for sure, such as respect for science and lab equipment (I am a Neuroscience major myself), a deep dive into the abstracts for mathematics (as a math minor student), and perhaps a general sense of curiosity. However, there are also deep and foundational skills that I find myself one day reusing in my career such as a dedication and desire to lead others, a feeling of empowerment to speak up when things are not right (as I have done quite a few times), and so many more.

Next, let us continue with the third goal of the school, to grow an understanding of (disciplinary, interdisciplinary and intercultural) perspectives and their connections. As a minority in neurodivergence myself, I loved this core value of the campus, and continue to. In fact, I was even lucky enough to join our campus on a program that values diversity (I shall omit the name in case). Through this program, and through interaction with staff and students in various scenarios for various reasons I met a wide variety of kind and respectful perspectives on a wide variety of issues and topics. There seriously is no stereotypical cobber student in my student, there is almost always someone from a different country, a different cultural background, a different faith, a different person especially, from you. In the end, I really feel you cannot be a liberal campus without having liberal perspectives spread everywhere like jam on a sandwich.

Next, let us continue with the fourth goal of the school, to cultivate an examined (cultural, ethical, physical and spiritual) self-understanding. In the end, if I am understanding this value correctly, the development in the knowledge of my own sense of self and being; if I am not wrong in this interpretation, this one is a large strength of the school. All around school are very loving staff that have helped me when my sense of being felt confusing. I have laughed with them, grumbled in frustration about something small about my day with them, and even cried with them. They have comforted me deeply in many ways when the world felt off and made me feel extremely unsure about myself or a general situation. It may have felt uncomfortable in the moment since grieving really stinks at times, but I find myself far more emotionally, spiritually, culturally, and maybe even a bit physically understanding in myself in the long run. This was really good for me during a period of my life when myself, my world, and my sense of belonging amongst it was far more off to myself.

Finally, let us conclude with the final goal of the school, to ensure responsible participation in the world. Now, going in, I was plenty responsible and dedicated at the start of my education adventure so soon as June of freshman year. However, my very sense of what really is responsibility did actually feel scrambled. After all, I found myself confused and overwhelmed as to what I should do because what one kind of person says I must do will absolutely conflict against what another type of person would declare what I must do in order to be “responsible;” what it seriously means to be an adult despite the contradictions in demands. In the end, I felt myself quite confused in these social games until Concordia College gave me an organized and harmless four year long opportunity to independently practice alone what responsibility really means for myself. As a result of this gift, I found what works for me. I asked at least just enough questions to trusted aforementioned staff members I met with weekly, and explored the social rules I found interesting or off-putting in the many, many aspects of campus I still declare a safespace. Indeed, I do mean a safespace as Concordia College prides itself in building spaces for anyone to drop our masks and take steps back from them when the masks are hard to breathe in.

In the end, I felt myself become a more mentally organized and extra complex person in real time in my enrollment of Concordia College Moorhead. I may have had a few tough times, sure, but even those challenges served me value.

Thank you for sticking with me this one final time, readers. Thank you for reading my posts collectively in fact. As we say on campus, “It’s a great day to be a Cobber.”