My four years at Concordia have been nothing short of amazing. I have grown so much personally, emotionally, and academically, and I know that is all thanks to Concordia’s focus on liberal learning.

My Unexpected Chemistry Journey

I came to Concordia with an undecided major, but knew I wanted to be on the pre-med track. I felt my science experience in high school was not as good as every other pre-med my age, so I had no confidence in myself majoring in any STEM discipline starting out. My chemistry class in high school consisted of watching Bill Nye or doing homework for other classes because we had a long-term sub who did not know chemistry. Basically, Chem 127 was my first chemistry class ever. I fell into the pre-med default of a biology major early on, very much disliked it (I am not much of a plant girl – ecology was my last straw), and after taking organic chemistry I knew chemistry was where I wanted to be. I love math and I love puzzles, and that is what chemistry is! The beauty of my journey, though, is that as much as I disliked biology, I could not have enjoyed chemistry without it because my biology courses taught me how to study and how to piece things together. This is just one example of interdisciplinary perspectives coinciding in my liberal arts education.

Neurochemistry was everything I have ever wanted in a class. I love chemistry, but I also love the human body and I have been dreaming of the day when these two subjects would come together somehow. I lived that dream my final semester at Concordia! I found that neurochemistry easily checked all five boxes of Concordia’s liberal learning goals, but there are three very prominent goals that this class fulfilled the most for me as a graduating student.

• Neurochemistry instilled a love for learning.                                                      The material in this class was something that made me excited to read the research articles each week, because of the various topics’ prevalence, recency, and relatability. I found that the things we were learning about diseases or drugs would somehow arise in my everyday life allowing me to apply my knowledge and educate those around me! This is something that has always made subjects like anatomy and organic chemistry more enjoyable for me because I could always find something in the real world to utilize my new knowledge and quiz myself with! I found myself doing research for fun in this class and developing a fascination for signaling cascades which was something I despised prior to this semester.
• Neurochemistry helped to develop foundational skills.                                  From this semester alone, I did more primary article reading, public speaking and science communication, critical thinking, and interdisciplinary connection than all seven of my previous semesters combined. These skills are so incredibly important, and I will carry them with me throughout my further education in medical school (let’s hope I make it there). The thing I loved the most about organic chemistry was how everything could be pieced together like a puzzle, and I found that neurochemistry was very similar in that way too! This was especially highlighted on our exams which I found to be very fun. As a doctor one day (hopefully), this skill of piecing bits of information together will also be  important along with the many other skills gained from this course.
• Neurochemistry cultivated an examined physical, and spiritual self-understanding.                                                                                                                The last three semesters have been tough for me. I have never been so burned out and so exhausted in my entire life. With medical school applications and the MCAT getting closer, I have questioned my future plans so much feeling as though I will never be good enough to live my dream of being a doctor. Imposter syndrome at it’s finest! With this burn out, I lost my enjoyment and love for learning. Neurochemistry was my saving grace. This course reminded me about how much I love problem solving, listening to other people’s inputs and ideas regarding an issue, and how much I just love science. Having the ability to discuss medical issues using  anatomy, physiology, and chemistry was the refresher I needed academically, and it kept me going on my medical journey! Neurochemistry is one of my favorite classes I have ever taken for this reason.

Concordia’s liberal arts education provided me such perfectly interconnected knowledge the last four years. Each semester, without fail, I found ways in which all my courses were lining up in some way (even the one semester that I had PChem, Biochem, and Religion), and I was constantly reminded that many concepts, especially the ones you dislike, always come back for reiteration and application because they are actually important. To this day, I am still using the concepts I learned as a freshman! Neurochemistry was truly the icing on the cake that was my time at Concordia. This class utilized my primary article reading skills, research skills, communication skills, anatomy and physiology knowledge, biochemistry and organic chemistry knowledge, and psychology knowledge that I have developed over the last four years. While reviewing a lot of material that I had forgotten from previous years, I also learned so much from this course and gained a tremendous understanding of what it means to be a Cobber and have the privilege of receiving a liberal arts education. Not to mention that I had some of my most favorite people ever in this class who have helped make my chemistry experience even more amazing. They even made suffering through PChem enjoyable which is impossible. I love my “What In the H Hat” group (it’s a PChem joke) so much! I truly could not imagine a better course than neurochemistry to end my time at Concordia with!

Thank you Concordia and the Concordia Chemistry Department. I will miss you!

What is Psychopathy

The term psychopathy gets thrown around quite a bit to describe someone’s behavior that demonstrates a lack of empathy, but what really is it? When referring to the DSM-5 psychopathy is not going to be found, since it is actually classified as an extreme form of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). The characteristics are hostility, aggression, impulsivity, callousness, manipulation, and deceitfulness. Therefore, psychopathy is commonly associated with violent offenders, which is true, but not in all cases: psychopathy is present in 1-3% of the general population and 10-30% of incarcerated offenders.

What Makes a Psychopath

Individuals diagnosed with extreme ASPD experience dysregulation in glucose metabolism, opioidergic neurotransmission, and gene specific dysregulation. Research has found a decrease in opioid receptor expression which explains the impulsive behavior as individuals act out to stimulate the receptor through rewarding effects. The abnormal glucose metabolism is under functioning leading to hypoglycemia in individuals. Long terms hypoglycemia could explain the aggressive behavior displayed by diagnosed individuals. Major genes associated with psychopathy are: RPL109, ZNF132, CDH5, and OPRD1. RPL109 and ZNF132 are upregulated and CDH5 and OPRD1 are downregulated. ZNF132 is expressed in the cerebellum, which regulates social behavior through dopamine release. Research has found that the neuronal expression of RPL109 and ZNF132 is abnormal. ORPD1 encodes for the opioid receptor, therefore the downregulation of this gene would explain the decrease of opioid receptors. All of these genes except ORPD1 have also been linked to Autism.

Nature vs Nurture

Psychopathy has been linked to father to son inheritance. Although not all diagnosed psychopaths had a psychopathic father. Studies have explored environmental factors but there has not been a statistical significance in diagnosed psychopaths and environmental influences. However, it is speculated that environmental factors could exacerbate genetic factors. Additionally, it is known that early childhood stress alters gene methylation and expression and childhood maltreatment and abuse increase reactive aggression. These factors could increase psychopathic symptoms but have not been linked to cause psychopathy. Therefore, psychopathy is viewed to be most influenced by nature and not nurture.

Treatment

There is currently no cure for psychopathy but there are treatments to make the condition manageable. The major treatments are therapy and medication. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) works to correlate existing thought patterns to positive outcomes. The different medications being explored are mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and naloxone. Mood stabilizers are used to reduce agitation and potentially violent acts. Antipsychotics are used to reduce violence and aggression and lessen the urge to harm others. Naloxone as a partial opioid receptor agonist may upregulate the opioid receptor rate in diagnosed psychopaths and counteract the symptom of low opioid receptors. Using treatments in combination would provide the most effective outcome.

Conclusion

The changes in gene expression account for the upregulation of RPL109 and ZNF132 and the downregulation of OPRD1 and CDH5. The dysregulation of these genes results in abnormal glucose metabolism and a decrease in opioid receptors in psychopathic individuals. Research has explored if psychopathy is brought on by genetics or environmental factors and has found that psychopathy is most likely genetic but can be exacerbated by environmental influences.

References

[1] Tiihonen, J., Koskuvi, M., Lähteenvuo, M. et al. Neurobiological roots of psychopathy. Mol Psychiatry 25, 3432–3441 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0488-z.

[2] Therapist.com. What is a psychopath? Signs, causes, treatments. (2022). https://therapist.com/disorders/psychopathy/.

Introduction

Many college students find themselves asking this question. Students wrestle with the thought of whether their exam scores will be better if they stay up all night studying or if they get 8 hours of sleep. Research has found that learning occurs during sleep and is therefore more beneficial to go to sleep than stay up and study. While asleep memory consolidation occurs in the hippocampus by the activation of CRE-mediated transcriptional pathway through REM sleep. Disruption of the circadian oscillations by lack of sleep leads to impaired memory formation.

Sleep stages

While asleep the brain goes through four different stages of sleep each ranging in time and is characterized by different waves and stages of wakefulness. A complete cycle of all stage’s averages about 90 minutes where the cycle repeats all night getting progressively longer through the night. NREM is made up of stages 1-3 and stage 4 is REM sleep.

Stage 1

Stage one is a non-REM stage that makes up 1-7 minutes out of a 90-minute cycle. This stage is characterized by the person falling asleep, slowing brain activity, and relaxing of the body. During this time the brain is experiencing alpha waves. Without any disturbances the quicker an individual can enter stage 2.

Stage 2

Similar to stage 1, stage 2 is also classified as non-REM but can last between 10-25 minutes. Unlike stage 1 that gradually shortens through the night, stage 2 becomes longer and accounts for half the amount of sleep time that night. Brain waves also shift from alpha to theta waves allowing the body to become relaxed, slowing of breathing and heart rate, and a drop of temperature. The brain also starts experiencing bursts of activity, sleep spindles and k complexes, that help the brain block out external stimulation to prevent being awakened.

Stage 3

Stage 3 or slow wave sleep is characterized by delta waves and is still non-REM sleep. At the beginning of the night this stage can last from 20-40 minutes but decreases through the night to allow more time to be spent in REM sleep. During this stage individuals are harder to wake up and are experiencing deep relaxation, a decrease in muscle tone, breathing rate, and pulse. The benefits of slow wave sleep are that it allows the body to grow and recover while strengthening the immune system.

Stage 4

The final stage of a complete sleep cycle is REM sleep. REM sleep occurs 90 minutes into the sleep cycle and time spent in this stage increases throughout the night. While in REM sleep the individual experiences muscle atonia, temporary paralysis, rapid eye movement, fast breathing, and an increased pulse. The brain waves during this stage mimic the brain waves of when the individual is awake, resulting in dreams and memory consolidation.

Memory Consolidation and Learning

The memory consolidation pathway activation has been linked to REM sleep. During REM sleep the brain experiences an influx of calcium ions through NMDA receptor activation. Calcium and cAMP signals activate the MAPK pathway, which activates the Calcium, cAMP, Response Element (CRE) mediate-transcription pathway. The cAMP/MAPK/CRE pathway undergoes a circadian oscillation in REM sleep. When disruption occurs to this oscillation memory persistence is impaired. Therefore, consistent and quality sleep is imperative to allow for memory formation to occur and to solidify concepts while asleep.

Conclusion

To solidify memories and gain a better understanding of a topic it is best to sleep on it. By going to sleep the body enters REM sleep where the cAMP/MAPK/CRE pathway is activated. The continuous activation of this pathway allows for the consolidation of memories. Therefore, instead of studying all night and trying to memorize information it is better to read it over and go to sleep and let your brain consolidate the information for you, allowing you to remember information for the exam and not suffer from sleep deprivation.

References

[1] Saini, R., Jaskolski, M. & Davis, S.J. Circadian oscillator proteins across the kingdoms of life: structural aspects. BMC Biol 17, 13 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-018-0623-3

[2] Suni, Eric. Stages of sleep. Sleep Foundation (2023). https://www.sleepfoundation.org/stages-of-sleep

[3] Xia, Z.; Storm, D. (2017). Role of circadian Rhythm and REM sleep for memory consolidation. Neuroscience Research 118, 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2017.04.011

What is the endocannabinoid system?

The endocannabinoid system is a neuromodulatory system that is important in the central nervous system for the role it plays in maintaining synaptic plasticity and homeostasis in the brain. This system controls mood, pain, perception, learning and memory, along with other things as well. It also has a neuroprotective role during traumatic brain injuries. An important part of the endocannabinoid system includes the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 along with a few others. The CB1 receptor has been connected to pathophysiological events ranging from memory deficits to neurodegenerative disorders. The CB1 receptor, therefore, is very important in maintaining well-being. But what is the CB1 receptor exactly that makes it so important for human health? It is one of the most commonly found G protein coupled receptors in the central nervous system, specifically in the neocortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem. A receptor found in such high quantities is bound to play a very impactful role in brain homeostasis. They specifically bind to cannabis sativa, more commonly known as marijuana and THC. On the other hand, CB2 receptors have a more defined pattern of expression and are primarily found in cells and tissues of the immune system. CB2 receptors are associated with inflammation and are localized to microglia.

Cannabis

THC and CBD (cannabidiol) are both cannabinoids that are derived from cannabis plants. While CBD does not produce the high sensation often associated with cannabis, THC absolutely does. THC is a cannabis that has over 60 ligands for CBs, so exposure to it can cause paradoxical effects in humans like relaxation, dysphoria, tolerance, and dependence. However, these effects are blocked with a selective blocker of CB1 receptors. This is because THC must bind with the CB1 receptors to produce a sense of euphoria. Furthermore, THC has positive effects on spasms and pain associated with MS. THC may show improvement in those with multiple sclerosis due to the link between CB1 and CB2 receptors and anti-inflammation effects in CNS. For other common medical purposes, THC has benefits to reduce pain, insomnia, low appetite, nausea, anxiety, etc. However, people might prefer CBD over THC because of the lack of side effects that can occur with THC. CBD has also been shown to help with conditions like seizures, inflammation, pain, mental disorders, migraines, depression, and anxiety.

A long history

Cannabis has been around for quite a long time in different cultures across the world. Cannabis was officially attested to nearly 12,000 years ago near the Altai Mountains in Central Asia. South-East Asia has also been proposed as an alternative region for the primary domestication of cannabis where it was used for fibers for ropes and nets, food, and seeds for oil. However, as for medical purposes, the earliest records point to usage in China. The discovery of the curative
properties of these plants was said to be made by Shén Nóng, a mythical emperor whose name means the Divine Farmer in the 20^th century BC. Later, Europe rediscovered the medicinal and psychoactive properties of cannabis through the translation of Arabic books and manuscripts followed by the scientific observations made by physicians of their time. Eventually, Western medicine became quite popular in the late 19^th and early 20^th century. During this popularization, Queen Victoria took cannabis for cramps, while Empress Elisabeth of Austria took it for cough and appetite stimulation. While it was used often in the past, it is sort of a taboo in our current American society. Today, telling a friend you took cannabis for cramps may raise some eyebrows. Nevertheless, it is still making a comeback for its medical purposes in the healthcare system today.

Conclusion

The endocannabinoid system, composed of two primary receptors CB1 and CB2, is important in brain homeostasis. Cannabis has been around for centuries and while research on it has not been done in depth, there is enough proof of the effects that it can have on human health and well-being. For years, cannabis has been medically used in different regions of the world. Today, it is making a medical use comeback, although it also has negative side effects that make people hesitant on relying on it for medicine.

Citations

1. Kendall, D. A., & Yudowski, G. A. (2017). Cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system: Their signaling and roles in disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294
2. Hiding in plain sight: The discovery of the endocannabinoid system // International League Against Epilepsy. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://www.ilae.org/journals/epigraph/epigraph-vol-21-issue-1-winter-2019/hiding-in-plain-sight-the-discovery-of-the-endocannabinoid-system
3. The endocannabinoid system: How cannabinoids take effect. (2019, November 15). https://www.encore-labs.com/the-endocannabinoid-system-how-cannabinoids-take-effect
4. Holland, K. (2020, July 20). CBD vs. THC: What’s the difference? Healthline Media. https://www.healthline.com/health/cbd-vs-thc
5. Crocq, M.-A. (2020). History of cannabis and the endocannabinoid system. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(3), 223–228. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.3/mcrocq

Nootropics

Nootropics are defined as molecules that aim to improve cognitive functions. You may have heard of them being referred to brain supplements or enhancers. There are several natural and synthetic molecules on the market that claim to have brain enhancing effects. But in order to talk about these nootropics we first need to understand what cognition is, and what it means to have enhanced cognition.

What Is Cognitive Function?

Cognitive function is a term used to describe someone’s ability to perform a variety of social and intellectual functions. There are 6 neurocognitive domains that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) defines (1):

1. Perceptual and Motor Function: one’s ability to coordinate their bodies movements in response to their environment, and ability to interact with the environment.
2. Language: the ability to communicate through writing or speaking, our grasp on grammar and appropriate speech patterns.
3. Learning and Memory: the ability to record and recall information from the past. This involves many subdomains like working memory, and short term and long term memory.

   

4. Social Cognition: the ability to processes, remember, and use information in social contexts to explain our own behavior; or to predict the behavior of others. Recognizing social cues and understanding facial expressions are good examples.
5. Attention: ability to focus on multiple things at once, as well as the ability to prioritize what to pay attention to.
6. Executive Function: higher level functions that allow us to plan and organize tasks, as well as make decisions and respond to our environment.

Many intellectual disabilities are characterized by a reduced ability to perform some or all of these cognitive functions. Research into nootropics to enhance these functions could potentially be used as as a way to combat intellectual disabilities.

Natural Nootropics

L-Theanine

L-theanine is an amino acid that is found in green tea but can also be bought in capsule or pill form as a supplement. L-theanine when taken on its own has been shown to improve self-reported relaxation, and induce a state of calmness with a dosage of 200mg (2).

Caffeine

Caffeine has long been known to decrease drowsiness, due to its ability to bind to adenosine receptors in the body. However it’s also been shown that caffeine can improve performance during long lasting cognitive tasks at doses of 40mg (2).

When taken together L-theanine and caffeine improved performance in attention-switching tasks and in alertness (3). However these are ‘moment of’ improvements, as I like to call them. They will improve function when taking them, but there aren’t any long term effects these compounds have in the body that will improve cognitive function in the long run or permanently.

Synthetic Nootropics

Ampakines

Ampakines are a group of drugs that increase excitatory synaptic responses in the brain. Because of this effect they facilitate long-term potentiation (learning), and induce the production of a family of molecules called neurotrophic factors, which help improve various brain functions and growth (4).

Modafinil

Modafinil is a prescription drug that is often used to treat narcolepsy. Tt has stimulating effects similar to amphetamines, though it has a lower risk of addiction. Modafinil has been shown to improve reaction time, logical reasoning, and short term-memory when compared to a placebo (5). The exact mechanisms of how modafinil enhances these cognitive functions is unknown, however.

References

1. https://altoida.com/blog/defining-the-6-key-domains-of-cognitive-function/#:~:text=Defining%20the%20Six%20Key%20Domains%20of%20Cognitive%20Function,of%20Neurocognitive%20Function%20to%20Improve%20Disease%20Diagnostics%20

2. Effects of Green Tea Phytochemicals on Mood and Cognition, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28056735/

3. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/nootropics#12.-Modafinil-(Provigil)

4. Ampakines and the Threefold Path to Cognitive Enhancement, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16890999/

5. Modafinil, D-Amphetamine, and Placebo During 48 Hours of Sustained Mental Work, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16890999/

What are Nootropics?

Nootropics are chemicals that are meant to help support the functioning of the brain. These can be either synthetic drugs commonly referred to as “smart drugs” or they can be found in certain foods. These chemicals help activate cognitive functioning and support things such as learning and memory. They also have neuroprotective effects, which means that they help to keep the neurons from dying of either damage or apoptosis. Apoptosis refers to programed cell death that happens when a neuron stops working correctly. These drugs can also help to protect neuronal protein and nucleic acid synthesis, both of which are important for a neuron’s survival (Malik & Tlustos, 2017).

These drugs can be used to enhance the cognitive functioning of healthy individuals and possibly could delay the onset of neurodegenerative disorders. Though more research is still needed to confirm their usefulness in delaying the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. But these drugs could also possibly be used to treat memory and learning disorders. Though the gains that can be achieved via the use of these drugs seems to be dependent on the severity of the disorder (More, Lauterborn,  Papaleo, & Brambilla, 2020).

How are Nootropics Studied?

Nootropics are an important thing to be studied as they have the possibility to help a lot of people. But they can’t be studied on human participants until their safety and efficacy as been established in animal models. Animal models are animal subjects that share certain characteristics with humans that allow them to act as stand ins for humans. For instance mice and rats have several neuronal similarities with humans that make them a good model for neuroscience research. But when studying nootropics it is important to establish how measure their cognition in comparisons for humans.

There are six neurocognitive domains that are used to examine cognition in humans: 1) perceptual and motor function, 2) language, 3) learning and memory, 4) social cognition, 5) attention, and 6) executive function. There are certain tests used in rodent models to determine their ability in each of these domains. Here I will go over three of these tests (More, Lauterborn,  Papaleo, & Brambilla, 2020).

The first test is called the Digging Task and this is used to measure their discrimination skills requires adequate perceptual and motor function. For this task the rodents are conditioned to associate a certain sent with a treat. They are then put in a box with two separate cups of sand, with each cup being a different sent. The subject must decide which cup to dig in to get the treat. It was found that subjects with bilateral frontal cortex damage had more difficulty with this task than the control subjects (Dig Task, 2023).

(Dig Task, 2023)

The next task is called the Continuous Performance Test which is used to measure attention. This test was originally designed for humans and then was modified for rodents for preclinical trials. For this task rodents are put in a box with a screen and are shown five black and white stimuli. Before the trials begin the subjects are conditioned to associate one of the pictures with a reward. They have to watch the pictures as they cycle through until they see the one associated with a reward. They then need to interact with that stimulus in order to get their reward. Subjects who struggle with reacting to the appropriate stimulus have deficits in attention (Rodent continuous…).

(Rodent continuous…)

Finally there is the Three Chamber Social Approach Task, which is used to determine if the rodent has any deficits in social functioning. This task involves putting the subject in a three chamber box where it can move freely between all the chambers. In the two side chambers there are wire cages. First there is a stranger rodent put in one of the wire cages. If the subject in socially functional it will spend most of its time interacting with this first stranger rodent. Then a second stranger rodent is put in the cage on the other side. Again if the subject is socially functional it will want to investigate this new rodent and spend most of its time interacting with the new rodent (Maze Engineers, 2018).

(Neural Circuits and behavior core) 

References

Dig task. Maze Engineers. (2023, February 10). Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://conductscience.com/maze/portfolio/dig-task/

Malik, M., & Tlustos , P. (2017). Home – PMC – NCBI. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/

Maze Engineers. (2018). The Sociability Chamber: A Test of Social Approach. Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://www.google.com/search?q=the%2Bthree%2Bchamber%2Btask&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS926US931&sxsrf=APwXEdeWCW9JDhzNhRtr60NdnGcoM1VX7w%3A1682473366665&source=lnms&tbm=vid&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiAqvTatcb-AhUtjYkEHTtUCqgQ_AUoAnoECAEQBA&biw=1438&bih=690&dpr=2#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:d298c613,vid:HJjanD_Mk9c.

More, L., Lauterborn, J. C., Papaleo, F., & Brambilla, R. (2020). Enhancing cognition through pharmacological and environmental interventions: Examples from preclinical models of neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 110. 28-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.003.

Neural Circuits and behavior core. Social Behavior | Neural Circuits and Behavior Core. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://ncbc.medicine.uiowa.edu/equipment-fees/equipment/behavior/social-behavior

Rodent continuous performance task: Image (rCPT) for mice. Neuroscience by Lafayette Instrument Company. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://lafayetteneuroscience.com/products/image-cpt-mice/