Cobbers on the Brain

One aspect of the semester that I would like to highlight is the end of week discussions that the class would have on each paper we read. This discussion really helped me learn how to communicate my ideas effectively, and in an interesting way.

As a chemistry major, I understand how intimidating chemistry and science in general can be. However, I also know and have learned the benefit of understanding how things work. Having knowledge of the natural world around you allows you to make better, more informed decisions. In my mind, chemistry, biology, and neuroscience should not be intimidating topics. Yes, they are notorious for being confusing, but with practice we can be better at explaining them. This is why the discussions are so important because they allow us to explain things to an informal audience. I hope that in my future as a scientist that I will have many science communication opportunities. I have discovered that I adore public speaking when it comes to science communication. I would not have known this if courses like this one and other courses at Concordia had not pushed me to communicate effectively.

In almost every discussion we had for this course, we brought up the idea of how to educate the public on this topic. Although this was just a thought experiment and will not lead to actual implementation, we talked a lot about educating children early on topics such as diet, mental health, physical health, etc. I think it is very important to have scientists who understand science to be the ones to create the educational materials to be presented to these boards of education.

 Additionally, I became better at listening to others. That statement makes it sound like I was not listening to others before, which I believe I was, just not in the most effective nor helpful way. Before, I would have the urge to rapidly jump into a conversation whenever I had something to say. Usually, this was me trying to relate to a person and their thoughts/ideas/emotions, however I realize now I was unknowingly interrupting them. These weekly discussions have taught me that even when someone finishes a sentence, it can be best to wait and let the words hang in the air. This allows for them to add on or clarify their thoughts, or just allows for deeper contemplation of the topic. 

While I was listening more to my peers, I was learning more about them than ever before. Concordia has many goals and policies to promote multiculturalism which I believe are invaluable. However, the most value from having people from different backgrounds and cultures meet is when they actually listen to each other. While we were discussing neurochemical topics like schizophrenia, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease; I was simultaneously learning about how the school system works in Norway, or the ordinary diet in Nigeria, or how people access mental health care in rural North Dakota. Learning about the background of my peers gave me their own personal context. It allowed me to see the reasons why they think the way they do.

The endogenous cannabinoid system has opened new ways for understanding how our bodies work, over the years more research has been conducted in understanding the system. The Endocannabinoid system has two receptors CB1 and CB2. CB1 is the most common type of receptor, it is found in the CNS in areas of the hippocampus, neocortex, and brainstem, as well as other parts of the body such as the eyes and the testes. CB1 receptors are in synapses, which is where nerve cells connect. CB1 receptors interact with substances such as THC which arises from marijuana, synthetic drugs, and natural compounds produced by the body. THC plant contains over 60 different compounds that can activate CB1 and CB2 receptors, the most well-known being ∆9-THC, exposure to THC can lead to various effects in humans such as pain relief, relaxation, and discomfort.3 They’re several consequences that arise from the overuse of THC, some short-term effects are for instance when an individual smokes this, it will pass through the lungs into the bloodstream and from there travel to the brain and other organs. The high that people experience from THC is due to different parts of the brain being activated with the CB receptors and this causes changes that cause altered senses, changes in mood, and alterations in mood.1 Long-term effects include breathing problems for those who smoke it, if used while pregnant this may impact the child’s memory and problem-solving, and overusing THC can worsen symptoms in individuals who experience schizophrenia, paranoia, and temporary hallucinations.2 The CB2 receptor is found in specific parts of the brain, it is mainly related to the immune system, however in the brain CB2 receptors are found mostly in the microglia which are immune cells that play a role in inflammation. In the past, research into the involvement of CB2 receptors in drug addiction was limited. However, there has been a growing body of research shedding light on their roles in alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine addiction.3 Emmanuel Onaivi conducted research on CB2 and was one of the first to find how the receptors link to alcohol addiction, he used mice in this study and found that when given a CB2 receptor activator the mice would drink more alcohol, especially when they were stressed, when the CB2 gene was removed the mice showed a higher need for alcohol and would consume more of it. However, in involuntary drinking experiments, CB2-/- mice drank less alcohol which is an indication that more research is still needed to understand alcohol’s role. Research on cocaine found that Activating CB2 receptors in mice reduced the effects of cocaine and decreased their motivation to use the drug while blocking these receptors reduced relapse after stopping cocaine use, and reduced cocaine’s rewarding effects. Additionally, changes in CB2 receptor levels in the brain were associated with cocaine exposure and addiction development in both mice and rats. Research on Nicotine found that Activating CB2 receptors in rats reduced nicotine intake but increased motivation for nicotine while blocking these receptors had little effect on nicotine-seeking behavior. In mice lacking CB2 receptors, there was less preference for nicotine and reduced motivation to use it, and blocking these receptors decreased nicotine self-administration and withdrawal symptoms.4

What is the Endocannabinoid System and How Does it Work with Cannabis?

1Abuse, N. I. on D. (2019, December 24). Cannabis (Marijuana) DrugFacts | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugfacts/cannabis-marijuana

2Cannabis/Marijuana Use Disorder. (n.d.). Yale Medicine. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/marijuana-use-disorder

3Kendall DA and Yudowski GA (2017) Cannabinoid Receptors in the Central Nervous System: Their Signaling and Roles in Disease. Front. Cell. Neurosci. 10:294. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

4 Navarrete, F., García-Gutiérrez, M. S., Gasparyan, A., Navarro, D., & Manzanares, J. (2021). CB2 Receptor Involvement in the Treatment of Substance Use Disorders. Biomolecules, 11(11), 1556. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11111556

For many years, it’s been understood that obesity triggers a chronic, low-level inflammation throughout the body, which leads to various health problems like type 2 diabetes, high cholesterol, heart disease, and even brain-related issues. Interestingly, the brain plays a significant role in this process by regulating our appetite and metabolism. Genetic factors also play a role, with many obesity-related genes affecting brain function easy access to foods with unhealthy and high-calorie foods not only affects a person externally but also has internal consequences. Research has found the hypothalamus becomes inflamed. This inflammation disrupts the brain’s ability to regulate energy balance and contributes to insulin resistance, making it harder for the body to manage blood sugar levels. The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating our metabolism and appetite, it contains different types of signals such as leptin and insulin which regulate our food intake. When a person consumes a high-fat diet, the hypothalamus is triggered and doesn’t respond as well to insulin and leptin, which are both hormones that regulate sugar and control appetite, saturated fatty acids interfere with normal signaling of insulin and leptin which then leads to positive energy balance and weight gain, the inflammatory pathways in the hypothalamus become activated leading to insulin and leptin resistance. This resistance leads to weight gain and other metabolic issues.2 Leptin, as we know, regulates appetite and energy balance, when you eat a high-fat diet it leads to an increase in fat stored in the body, which then turns to higher levels of leptin being released in the bloodstream, leptins role is to tell our brain to eat less and burn more energy which then helps us maintain a healthy weight, when a person consumes a high fatty diet this leads to leptin resistance, even though the brain levels are high the brain becomes less responsive to its signals when the body becomes resistant it doesn’t do a good job in telling the brain to eat less, which can lead to more eating and weight gain.3 When a person eats a lot of high fatty diet this can make cells less sensitive and when the cells don’t respond the body makes insulin to try to compensate for it, however over time this can mess up how the body controls hunger which makes a person want to eat more high fatty foods.1 TNF-α is a protein that responds to inflammation or infection, it promotes leptin and insulin resistance by activating certain signaling pathways. When the central nervous system is exposed to low levels of TNF- α this can impair leptin and insulin function in the hypothalamus. TNF- α also increases the production of PTP1B which is a protein that that negatively regulates insulin and leptin signaling. Elevated levels of PTP1B, particularly after long-term high-fat diet consumption, impair insulin signaling by directly inhibiting key molecules involved in the process. Deleting PTP1B specifically in neurons has been shown to improve metabolic health and reduce weight gain.

1 Ilyas, Athif, et al. “The Metabolic Underpinning of Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Insulin Sensitivity.” Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, Elsevier, 28 Oct. 2018, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0303720718302867.

2Jais, Alexander, and Jens C Brüning. “Hypothalamic Inflammation in Obesity and Metabolic Disease.” The Journal of Clinical Investigation, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 3 Jan. 2017, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28045396/.

3Mendoza-Herrera, Kenny et al. “The Leptin System and Diet: A Mini Review of the Current Evidence.” Frontiers in endocrinology vol. 12 749050. 24 Nov. 2021, doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.749050