Schizophrenia: Painting a Picture of Signaling and Cognition

Imagine if a skyscraper were constructed in such a way where they needed constant maintenance, and if they did not get it would be there natural state to collapse and be destroyed. It seems like a real backwards way to construct a building, or to maintain anything man-made or natural for that matter. So it is surprising to find out that a major chemical signaling pathway, the Wnt and GSK pathway, operates in manner that aligns with this metaphor. The natural state of this critical signaling pathway is that of destruction. The pathway must be activated by a Wnt ligand that triggers cellular events that stop a complex that is involved with destruction. If that seems a bit confusing, I was with you but bear with me. The pathway must be activated, to stop intracellular destruction, which maintains normal cell development.

So why does this matter?

The Wnt signaling pathway is integral in the development of the brain. For example, Schizophrenia is a well-known condition typically associated with disruption of this pathway. Schizophrenia and this pathway, in a nutshell, involves the destruction complex in the cell running wild and not being hindered by Wnt signaling as it should be. This makes sense because there are notable brain changes in schizophrenia involving the anatomy, and key developmental differences. These anatomical changes have some significant consequences for individuals afflicted with such a disease.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Most people are familiar with the positive symptoms common of schizophrenia. These would include hearing voices, and grand delusions of government conspiracies for example. These symptoms are only a small part of the wide varieties of symptoms schizophrenia is associated with. For example there are negative symptoms such as flat affect, and low motivation. These symptoms can also be accompanied with cognitive issues which can also have a substantial impact on quality of life.

Cognition and Schizophrenia

Along with positive and negative symptoms, there is a myriad of cognitive deficits typical of schizophrenia some of which are:

  • Attention: a common cognitive deficit involved with schizophrenia involves attentional issues. While a neurotypical individual can multitask and focus on several objects, those with schizophrenia tend to hyper-focus on one object at a time.
  • Working Memory: Attention and working memory work hand in hand. Working memory is your ability to take in information and briefly maintain and use it in an ongoing task. Generally working memory capacity is 3 to 4 simple items but it is considered less in schizophrenia. If you can only focus on one thing at a time you can only bring that one thing into your memory.
  • Executive Functioning: Executive Functioning is a broad and complex topic, but it generally includes things such as planning and goal-oriented behavior. These are all considered impaired in schizophrenia as it is more difficult to bring in new information and adjust to changes.

Conclusion

It is a little wild to think that a simple, and strange signaling pathway going wrong can have such broad consequences for an organism. A signaling pathway gone awry and causing cell death in its resting state is responsible for positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms alike. How such a small molecule, such as the GSK kinase that is responsible for the destruction, can have such broad implication for an overall organism.

“Too much of anything is a bad thing”, right? The idea of balance is integral to our understanding of the world across different belief systems and at various levels. Yin and Yang are perhaps the most notable examples of opposite forces evening out a greater whole, but the concept guides our beliefs and actions in many ways, from how we prioritize commitments in our lives to what kinds of foods we consume. While a disrupted balance in how we live our life can certainly make us feel anxious, It turns out that internal balance plays a key role in anxiety as well, with two neurotransmitters called Glutamate and GABA keeping each other in check- or at least supposed to be. 

Glutamate and GABA – How do they Relate?

In terms of anxiety, Glutamate and GABA could be considered the ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ of the central nervous system. Both are highly important for sending messages between neurons; in fact, they are responsible for over 90% of neurotransmission in the brain! They have directly opposite effects, however, with glutamate sending excitatory signals that make neurons more likely to ‘pass on a message’ and GABA sending inhibitory signals that make this communication less likely. Physiological homeostasis of the nervous system is needed for proper functioning, and it requires regulation of opposing forces such as these. So, when there is an abundance of Glutamate and low levels of GABA, stress and anxiety responses are more likely to occur.  

 

In many areas of the brain, glutamate and GABA are intertwined within neural circuits and pathways, and this close interaction allows them to balance each other through tight regulation. For example, axons of a specific type of cell called granule cells synapse with interneurons that release GABA in the the dentate gyrus, an area of the brain’s hippocampus. The granule cells release glutamate when excited, but because the neurons they synapse on release inhibitory GABA, the glutamatergic neurons (neurons that release glutamate) that these neurons project to will in turn be inhibited. In short: excitation stimulates inhibition, and this leads to inhibition of excitation. Pathways like these provide a mechanism for regulation of anxiety, because higher levels of GABA will result in lower levels of glutamate as a way to create balance – in fact, anti-anxiety medications such as benzodiazepines work in a similar fashion to this, by enhancing inhibitory effects of GABA on glutamatergic neurons. 

Another area involved in balancing these two neurotransmitters is the amygdala, whose general function is processing fearful and unpleasant stimuli. Specifically, the Basolateral nucleus (BLA), Central Amygdala (CeA) and Bed Nucleus of Stria Terminalis (BNST), are all locations involved within the amygdala. Glutamatergic neurons in the BLA are regulated by GABAergic interneurons that lie within this area as well. The CeA has only GABAergic neurons and receives input from the BLA. All of these connections and communications serve to modulate balance of GABA in the amygdala, with GABAergic neurotransmission helping to inhibit the amygdala’s interaction with stress and anxiety. On the flip side, however, stress may cause interneuronal networks to reduce, which disrupts the excitatory and inhibitory balance and can therefore lead to neuropsychiatric disorders. Animal studies back this up: in one experiment, for example, subjecting rats to social isolation reduced the expression of GABAergic neurons in the BLA.

Balance on a Societal Scale  

While these physiological mechanisms certainly offer insight for how anxiety responses can be regulated or dysregulated in the brain, they do not explain the rapidly rising rates of mental illness in the U.S. On a societal level, the argument has been made that people with mental disorders such as anxiety and depression are “canaries” of our cultural coal mine. Just like canaries were said to warn miners of an incoming explosion by singing, people suffering from mental illness are early warning signs of imbalance in society. The canaries did not survive the explosions, and people with mental health problems are victims of what some might view as an impending ‘cultural collapse’. I’ve always held the view that the ultimate priority should be fixing the underlying problems, not masking the symptoms. So, if the ‘canary in a coal mine’ hypothesis is correct, what could be causing the degradation of balance and harmony in the U.S? I’ve seen fingers pointed at many different elements in society, ranging from stress to technology to consumerism. Let me know what you think could be behind the rise of anxiety and other mental disorders in the comments! 

 

Schizophrenia: Why, When, and What to do about it?

Among all of the stigma surrounding mental health, schizophrenia fits right in. People experiencing positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions are often labeled as crazy or dangerous; negative symptoms, however, such as lack of motivation and blunted affect can lead those with schizophrenia to also be conceived as lazy or uninterested. Much of this stigma comes from misunderstanding of its symptoms and presentation, but we do not fully understand the underlying causes of this disease either. Even more elusive is the reason behind the age of onset for this disorder, which is between late adolescence and early adulthood. As researchers attempt to find better answers to these questions, improve screening, and offer treatments that do more than just mask symptoms, it will be important to focus on how we view schizophrenia and approach its management. 

Why Schizophrenia Occurs – One Piece of the Puzzle

Like most mental disorders, schizophrenia rises from a combination of biological, environment, and social components. You might have heard about factors such as social isolation or specific genes being risk factors, but the way that the messaging systems inside of our cells communicate can have significant impacts on schizophrenia as well. One particular signaling pathway, the Wnt signaling pathway, has been suggested through different lines of evidence to play a part in the development of schizophrenia. The Wnt signaling pathways have a wide range of roles, but are generally involved in development, including the development of the nervous system. In the canonical Wnt pathway, a protein called GSK3 normally works to lower levels of B-catenin (a protein that helps regulate gene transcription) in the cell by marking them for degradation. When Wnt neurotransmitters bind to receptors of this pathway, they inhibit the activity of GSK3. This means that it would no longer lower levels of B-catenin, ultimately allowing B-catenin to enter the nucleus and mediate gene transcription.  

http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_wntsignaling/wntsignaling.html

In schizophrenia, it has been proposed that dopamine can alter this pathway by activating GSK3; this would mean that levels of B-catenin are suppressed and unable to regulate gene transcription as normal. Essentially, too much dopamine signaling and not enough Wnt signaling may be mechanisms of schizophrenia development. Other factors can modulate this pathway too – such as the amount of expression for genes such as DISC1 – and therefore have also been suggested to be involved in this development pathway. 

The Onset of Schizophrenia

Interestingly, symptoms of schizophrenia usually do not appear until around 18 to 25 years old, but reasons why symptoms present around this time are not well established. Onset of schizophrenia in childhood is relatively rare, but there is some agreement among experts that schizophrenia does not present ‘out of the blue’ during late adolescence, like its symptoms can make it seem. Instead, symptoms such as hallucinations or delusions are the result of a buildup of molecular changes that start several years earlier, and eventually progress to psychosis.  

A lot of these molecular changes occurring are related to abnormal brain connectivity; during adolescence there is a major reorganization of connectivity between neurons, so this would in part explain the age of onset that is seen. Researchers have found that the DISC1 gene plays a role in connectivity through a couple of different methods. One of these is through forming dendritic spines- the protein expressed by this DISC1 gene acts as a holding place for a protein called Kal-7, which is a critical component of dendritic spine formation in synaptic plasticity, the physical basis for how our brain forms neural connections and “memories”. 

How to Approach Management of Schizophrenia

Given that we do not yet have a medication that can target the underlying cause of schizophrenia or prevent its development, it’s even more critical that we are careful about how we conceptualize this disorder. For individuals with schizophrenia, receiving the proper treatment and support can turn a prognosis from a person being unable to care for themselves to living a functional and rewarding life, whether in the presence of absence of symptoms. Specifically, though, what should be done? In my view, education is possibly the most important step in creating a strong support system for those with schizophrenia. This includes educating the individual, family members of the individual, and communities as a whole; an active focus on education would not only help the individual feel validated through normalizing their experience, but may help families learn how to help their loved one cope and would overall reduce harmful stigma, of just a few possible benefits. As a society that claims to value those who struggle with mental illness, we must take the steps we can to prove it.

Schizophrenia vs. Bipolar Disorder- Wnt Signaling Pathways

Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder share several similarities, few if any of which are of more consequence than the impeded function of the body’s Wnt pathways. The Wnt signaling pathways are incredibly important in both brain development, as well as function and regulation of the nervous system.  Due to the Wnt pathways importance in brain development and in turn function, it made sense to take a look at both types of Wnt signaling; canonical (B-Catenin dependent), and non-canonical (B-Catenin independent). Adult neurogenesis and schizophrenia: A window on abnormal early brain  development? - ScienceDirect

What researchers found was that both in Schizophrenia, and Bipolar Disorder, there was a dysregulation of mRNA expression of canonical Wnt signaling genes and indications of an uptick in non-canonical Wnt signaling.  This problem is twofold. The initial issue is the dysregulation results in an inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling, and a lower B-Catenin level. The second part of this problem, is that non-canonical signaling ALSO inhibits canonical signaling, driving the B-Catenin level down even further.  So due to this dysregulation in both diseases, we see them characterized by Low B-Catenin levels which goes hand in hand with low canonical Wnt signaling. However, there is a third component which comes in the form of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β).   In Schizophrenia there is also a large reduction in the amount of GSK-3βpresent whereas in Bipolar Disorder the GSK-3βis overexpressed.  This leads to more questions, as GSK-3β is a Wnt inhibitor as well.  In Bipolar Disorder, the overexpression can be dealt with through a GSK inhibitor like lithium. However it was not clear if this process could also be looked upon to increase Wnt signaling and B-Catenin levels in a Schizophrenia model as well.  While currently in other models, pharmaceutical inhibition of GSK3, or non-canonical Wnt antagonists have resulted in a successful increase of B-Catenin dependent signaling, this process, as well as the etiology in Schizophrenia remain a mystery.

Unlinking Moral Failure and Mental Illness

With one in every five Americans experiencing a mental illness at some point in their lives, how is it that the stigma surrounding mental illness remains so pervasive? Despite the high societal prevalence, according to National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI), almost 57% of adults with mental illness do not receive treatment and the average delay between symptom onset and treatment is eleven years. For Karen Ranus, Executive Director of NAMI-Austin, it comes down to a disconnect between viewing mental health conditions as medical conditions because parts of society view mental illnesses as “some character flaw or some kind of moral failing… a personality flaw.” Clearly, linking mental illness with moral failings contributes to and perpetuates the existing stigma surrounding mental health.

So, how do we begin unlinking mental illness and moral failures?

According to NAMI, talking openly about mental health and educating both yourself and others are two incredibly important ways to help decrease the stigma surrounding mental health. So, let’s take a quick dive into the brain and look at one of the biological risk factors for developing schizophrenia.

Inside the brain:

One of the ways that your body seeks to be more efficient is by having multiple copies of a gene arranged in sequence one right after another along the same strand of DNA. This is a really powerful way for your body to make multiple RNA copies of those genes by having RNA Polymerase, the molecular machine that transcribes DNA into RNA, simply bind at the beginning of that series of genes and work down the DNA strand at one time, rather than having to bind multiple times to the start of the gene to make the same number of RNA copies. After this process of transcription is completed, the RNA will be translated into proteins by another molecular pathway. While we won’t spend time on translation here, you should know that more copies of RNA transcripts usually result in more proteins being formed. (If you want to learn more about transcription and translation, click here.)

(image credit: Khan Academy)

Interestingly, the number of these gene copies can vary from person to person. This is called Copy Number Variation or CNV. Importantly, CNVs can be passed from parents to children. In schizophrenia, specific CNVs at different locations on chromosomes are associated with a higher risk of developing the illness. This is an exciting area of active research in genetics because we do not yet understand the exact molecular pathway between the genetic risk factor posed by the CNV and the development of schizophrenia symptoms. (Image Credit: National Institutes of Health)

Now that we understand one of the biological risk factors for schizophrenia development, what else should we do to help end the stigma surrounding mental illness? NAMI’s other recommendations are:

  • Be conscious of the language we use to describe mental health conditions
  • Encourage equality between physical and mental illness
  • Show compassion for those with mental illness
  • Choose empowerment over shame
  • Be honest about treatment
  • Let the media know when they’re being stigmatizing
  • Don’t harbor self-stigma

To learn more about mental health stigma and take NAMI’s StigmaFree pledge, click here.

 

Infections During Pregnancy and Schizophrenia: Causation or Correlation?

Neurological diseases and disorders are health deficits that many people fear at some point in their lives. Some neurological diseases and disorders do not begin to suppress the brain and nervous system until later in life, but others can come as a result of molecular interactions that occurred before birth. One of these disorders that can be caused before birth includes Schizophrenia.

What goes wrong in the brain?

Schizophrenia is a neurological disorder that negatively affects a person’ ability to think clearly, behave normally, feel normally, and perceive reality normally. A common molecular pathway that has been shown to be involved with schizophrenia is the Wnt signaling pathway. When the Wnt pathway is activated it induces a cascade of events that can effect nervous system functions including neural circuit formation and synaptic plasticity. This pathway can become disrupted in a multitude of ways, but those involved with schizophrenia include disruptions of the destruction complex. Disruption of this complex can cause increased activation of the protein complex GSK3beta. GSK3beta inhibits beta-catenin which is a necessary molecule for gene transcription. If beta-catenin is not able to attach to transcription factors, then nervous system functionality could be rendered.

In utero infections correlating to schizophrenia

As stated previously, the molecular abnormalities that are thought to be involved with schizophrenia can begin before one is even born.  These in utero abnormalities can be caused by infection during pregnancy. Infections causing risk include influenza, viral infections, toxoplasmosis, rubella, and genital-reproduction infections (STDs). When a pregnant person becomes infected, their immune system becomes activated which can cause inflammation. When inflammation occurs, the body can recruit inflammation-induced cytokines.  There has been research that shows mothers who have birthed children who later are diagnosed with schizophrenia have been noted to have an elevation by nearly twofold of cytokine family molecules. Specifically, the most common cytokine family molecules that have been studied are interleukin-8 (IL8), interleukin-6 (IL6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), as well as others. These molecules are soluble peptides that can cause decrease brain development and behavior abnormalities, and they have been correlated to decrease cerebral cortical neuron survival especially during brain development.

Preventative actions

The good news to this information is that infections can be treated as well as prevented. It is extremely important to decrease the amount of time the infection is present and the immune system is activated. Luckily, many bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics. Antibiotics that are considered safe to take during pregnancy include penicillins (amoxicillin or ampicillin), cephalosporins, erythromycin, and clindamycin. These antibiotics can treat genital reproductive infections which have been noted to increase a baby’s risk of schizophrenia. Infections of this realm such as STDs can also be prevented by using barrier contraceptives. As for influenza, it is possible to prevent infection by receiving the influenza vaccine. Although, it is not recommended to receive the vaccine during pregnancy since it can put the fetus at risk for cytokine response exposure. Toxoplasmosis can be prevented through altered hygienic approaches. These approaches including limiting exposure to cat litter and gardening, as well as when cooking with meats, poultry, and fish to be sure to cook thoroughly to ensure that if there is any T. gondii oocytes, they are killed and will not entire the mothers body through ingestion. Taking all of the precautions and treatments stated above are extremely important during pregnancy and even before pregnancy.

Since there are many variables that can attribute to diseases and disorders of a child, it becomes extremely difficult to avoid all of them during pregnancy. But, the more science tells us, the more we can do to prevent exposure to environmental and molecular risk factors.

Treating Schizophrenia with the Drug that has Stood the Test of Time

 

Whether you learned about it in school or from the movies, schizophrenia is known about in pop culture for its wild symptoms. As a schizophrenic, being able to conjure up a person so vividly that they think they are seeing a real person that they can have a conversation with was bound to end up in a movie executives lap at some point. Having hallucinations such as these are part of the “positive” symptoms, or things that have been added on to normal everyday, schizophrenic life. There are also negative symptoms, which are a lack of doing something, such as depression or a lack of facial emotivity. Both of these kinds of symptoms have been hallmarks of the disorder for well over a century, and so treatment has also been experimented on for about as long. 

Lithium (yes, the element, in pill form) has been used as a treatment for schizophrenia since at least the late 19th century. It didn’t become a scientifically-based treatment until 1949, and then took another 20 years to get approval from the FDA. The fact that it wasn’t scientifically recognized didn’t stop it from being an effective treatment well before 1949 though, and amazingly, it is still used to this day as one of the most effective treatments for schizophrenia.

This speaks to one of two things. We as a society have either lagged behind in research and development and haven’t been able to adequately come up with, discover, or create a better treatment than lithium, or we luckily discovered one of the best treatments possible for schizophrenia patients early on (way before a lot of medicinal updates) and so to this day it still works as an adequate treatment option that works well. The truth is closer to the second one, of course we’ve come up with more treatment options; we’ve been able to create synthetic antipsychotics that certainly do their job, all thanks to modern medicine. Lithium however, has stood the test of time, continuing to be one of the most effective, responsive treatments for schizophrenia. 

Wnt signalling, a pathway for gene transcription among other things, is influenced by lithium. Lithium works to inhibit GSK3β, which is one of the principal problems discovered within schizophrenia. Overactive GSK3β means a lessened TCF/LEF-transcription factor output, of which lithium can mediate to increase transcription and alleviate the severity of schizophrenic symptoms. This is the mechanism by which lithium acts, but what are some of the other treatments for lithium, and what makes it so effective?

Drugs that treat schizophrenia are often overlapped with bipolar disorder, because the drugs work for both disorders. Comparing the 4 drugs that are commonly used for both, which include lithium, Valproate, Olanzapine, and Quetiapine, lithium can be found to display several benefits. Effective treatment of schizophrenia can be characterized by the ability to take the drug for as long as possible without the downsides of the side effects outweighing the benefits of the drug itself. When a drug is stopped due to this effect, it’s known as treatment failure. Lithium, when compared to the other 3 drugs here, had the longest treatment failure times. It also appeared to be the most effective treatment to prevent relapse or recurrence of bipolar disorder and may prolong the time before complimentary prescribing is necessary.

On that note, a meta-analysis was done on 20 different studies that looked at the effectiveness of lithium and found that as a sole agent, lithium wasn’t as effective as when prescribed with another drug for treating schizophrenia. This is referred to as lithium augmentation, and although some sources disagree, most confirm that this method is the best way to treat either of these disorders. 

There are almost no other drugs that can be said to have been the most effective drug for a disorder for over 150 years, but lithium is in that category. 

 

Western Society’s Toxic Role on Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens have been a controversial recreational drug type that has “plagued” Western nations for decades. However, hallucinogens have shown to have innumerable research and religious applications. Therefore, Western usage of hallucinogens has created a negative connotation on a significant resource.

ON RELIGION

Hallucinogens have been a long-standing tradition in Hindu religious practices, dating all the way back to the Vedic period. The idea of using hallucinogens and other recreational drugs is to transcend the mortal realm and reach a deeper sense of darsan, or mutual gaze with a deity. One way to transcend via hallucinogens is to drink the juice from the soma plant. Since Hinduism is considered to be very spiritual and lived-in experience, the idea of a mutual gaze with a god or goddess can increase a Hindu’s good karma and be able to break out of their reincarnation cycle, or samsara. All Hindus end goal is to break out of samsara and be able to be absorbed into a god or goddess that person is most devoted to.

With current Abrahamic traditions and Western perspectives seeming to colonize what is right and wrong in today’s world, Hindu practices seem extreme and almost illegal to some. If we continue to view hallucinogens as hazardous in recreational use and work to abolish them, an entire religion may lose a close connection to their gods and goddesses.

ON RESEARCH

Hallucinogens also offer a new form research outlook on schizophrenia research. The origin of schizophrenia is still unknown even though the diagnostic criterion was first written into the DSM-III in 1980. Nestler (2013) discussed the best “guess” of schizophrenia origin. Though the severity and variation of schizophrenia is vast, most researchers believe there is to some extent a dysregulation of Wnt signaling via GSK3b, b-catenin, and Akt, which is involved in healthy neurodevelopment in infants. Also, too high of dopamine signaling, lack of b-catenin transcription, and overactive GSK are all considered to cause developmental delays.

Unfortunately, the most common medication for Schizophrenia is lithium. This medication has been used for nearly two centuries. Lithium inhibits GSK and directly activates Wnt signaling to combat hallucinations experienced in Schizophrenia. However, a medication lasting as top choice in mental health disorder treatment for two centuries is overly concerning. Therefore, it is more important than ever to conclude the origin of schizophrenia. One complication researchers are facing is how to create a schizophrenia model in animals, such as rodents. Hallucinogens, such as LSD and PCP, all bind to serotonin, 5-HT2A, receptors. Serotonin binding in the ventral striatum and the ventral tegmental area, or VTA, are both associated with causing psychosis if a dysregulation is present. This binding is also perceived to be present in schizophrenic hallucinations. The primary distinction between hallucinations in both scenarios is that hallucinogens produce altered perceptions of reality and the person is aware these hallucinations are not real. Those who are diagnosed with schizophrenia that experience hallucinations believe they are real and appear seemingly out of nowhere. Both cases, however, can experience hallucinations in a tactile, auditory, or visual way. Therefore, disregarding the “real/not real” distinction, hallucinogens can mimic schizophrenic-like hallucinations in animal models.

In conclusion, hallucinogens are continually regarded as toxic and dangerous in Western recreational use. However, if we remove ourselves from our traditional viewpoints, we can see the innumerable roles hallucinogens play in research and religious practices. Therefore, it is important to educate ourselves beyond one use to fully gain an opinion on hallucinogens role in the modern world.

Image Sourced From: Livescience.com

Nature, Nurture, Ghost

Schizophrenia: The Nature, The Nurture, The Ghosts

Ghosts

While sitting on a bench at the park enjoying the lovely weather, you notice a stranger sitting a couple of benches down from yours. They appear to be conversing with someone, but this person is out of your line of sight. After a couple more minutes of peaceful rest, you stand up to continue on with your day and to tend to the other responsibilities and events you have planned. You look over once more at the stranger who still appears to be in a conversation, but this time with a clear view you notice there doesn’t seem to be anyone near this individual besides yourself. You think back to an article you recently read describing the condition of schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is a relatively common neurological disorder affecting an individual’s psyche. An exact cause for this condition remains elusive, but it is believed that there are strong genetic components and or altered brain chemistry or structures along with environmental factors in a percentage ratio of roughly 70:30 respectively contributing to the development of this disorder. The condition of schizophrenia is characterized by disconnected thoughts or experiences with reality. The most recognized and well-known symptoms fall under the category of positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, scrabbled thoughts, disorganized speech, movement irregularities) which are falsely believed to have a more debilitating effect on schizophrenics when in reality it’s the negative symptoms (lack of motivation, pleasure, emotion, inattention to cognitive input) that have a greater crippling effect.

Nature

One mechanism by which schizophrenia may occur is through malfunctions within the Wnt and GSK3 signaling pathways within the brain. The Wnt pathway functions to regulate the activity of an important molecule called Beta-catenin. In short, when the Wnt pathway is active within the brain, Beta-catenin is being produced which causes the cell to create proteins that are important for cellular functions. When the Wnt signaling pathway is off, the Beta-catenin is actively destroyed through the signaling of GSK3 which is another molecule within the Wnt signaling pathway. Schizophrenia occurs when there is insufficient Beta-catenin transcription. So, in simple terms:

  • active Wnt = Beta-catenin = no schizophrenia
  • high Beta-catenin = transcription of proteins = no schizophrenia
  • low Beta-catenin = schizophrenia
  • active GSK3 = destroyed Beta-catenin = schizophrenia

There are a number of factors that interplay with the Wnt signaling pathway making the study of schizophrenia and its cause complex. Drugs such as lithium show effects of increasing Wnt signaling pathway activation and inhibiting GSK3 which prevents GSK3 from destroying the needed Beta-catenin. Antipsychotic medications also regulate the production of Beta-catenin by interacting with the Dopamine pathway and Dopamine receptors which interlink with molecules within the Wnt pathway such as GSK3. Typically, Dopamine pathways activate GSK3, but antipsychotic medications block the dopamine pathways preventing the activation of GSK3 which also leads to an increase in Beta-catenin. Because of the significant factors of GSK3 and Wnt in the development of schizophrenia, it’s thought that inactivity of the Wnt pathway or overstimulation of GSK3 can lead to the development of schizophrenia.

Nurture

There are numerous details and complexities within cellular signaling which we could further explore, but it’s also important to consider the contributions of environmental factors as well. Proper prenatal care can significantly decrease the risk of developing schizophrenia. Factors such as illness, infection, and drug use while pregnant can put the child at risk of development. While pregnant, diabetes can increase the risk of a child’s development of the condition by 800% and a vitamin D deficiency can increase the risk by 4-fold. Proper management of diabetes, immunization of women prior to pregnancy, and other similar precautions can decrease the risk of development by 30%. Outside of prenatal care, complications in labor, urbanicity such as living in regions with populations of a million or more, increase risk by 500% and sexual abuse between the ages of 5 and 6 drastically increase the risk of development. The contributions from both the complex signaling pathways and the environmental factors make schizophrenia a challenging condition to study and even more so to fully understand. Further research is needed to illuminate the mysteries of this condition.

Sources

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cge.12111

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml

https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/66140/schizophrenia-other-psychotic-disorders/negative-symptoms-schizophrenia-how#:~:text=Negative%20symptoms%20include%20blunting%20of,to%20social%20or%20cognitive%20input.

 

Schizophrenia and Estrogen: An Unexpected Relationship

What is schizophrenia and how does it manifest?

Schizophrenia is a form of chronic mental illness that plagues around 20 million people worldwide, often intruding on an individual’s ability to function normally in social, educational, and occupational settings. Symptoms of schizophrenia are categorized into two types, positive and negative. Positive symptoms encompass the presence of ideas and perceptions that are not visible to others without the disorder. These symptoms can include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought and speech, movement disorders, and attention and memory difficulties. The negative symptoms are the symptoms that result due to an absence of normal cognitive, behavioral, and perceptual functioning. Negative symptoms can include hopelessness, social withdrawal, absence of pleasure or excitement, and a lowered ability to function at a normal standard in various settings within one’s life.

What is the science behind schizophrenia?

As the symptoms of schizophrenia can undoubtedly reduce the quality of an individual’s life, there is a great demand for expanded research and experimentation that explores the etiology, genetic and environmental risk factors, and potential treatments of this mental disorder. In the literature article titled, “An emerging role for Wnt and GSK3 signaling pathways in schizophrenia,” authors Jacques L. Michaud and Olivier Pourquie discuss the role of various pathways in the brain and how disruption of these pathways can lead to the development of schizophrenia. An example of a disrupted pathway is the overactivation of the dopamine pathway and its ability to potentiate the development and effects of schizophrenia. In this context, the neurotransmitter dopamine binds to its inhibitory receptor, called a D2 receptor, in the brain. When dopamine binds to the D2 receptor, the enzyme glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) is activated and destroys a protein called beta-catenin. This protein is responsible for the initiation of the transcription process of key developmental genes that aid in cognitive and social functioning. However, when excess dopamine binding results in the destruction of this beta-catenin protein and a lack of transcription of important developmental genes, schizophrenia and its associated symptoms can arise. Therefore, the dopamine pathway plays a primary target for antipsychotics and other treatments in the hopes of minimizing the symptoms of schizophrenia.

So, where does estrogen come in?

Through the use of animal studies, it has been shown that the reproductive hormone estrogen plays a role in the regulation of these dopaminergic pathways. The findings of these experiments showed that estrogen reduced both the levels and activity of D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens and caudate nucleus regions of the brain. Without lowered levels of D2 receptor activation by way of estrogen, GSK3 is active and consequently results in beta-catenin protein degradation. This event leads to the lack of transcription of key developmental genes, resulting in some of the cognitive deficits found in schizophrenia, as mentioned above.

Estrogen levels are low during various biological events, including the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle, postpartum period, and throughout menopause. During these times, women are therefore more likely to experience more severe psychotic episodes of schizophrenia due to the lack of sufficient estrogen in its action of blocking dopamine receptors. As a result, estrogen therapy is emerging as a promising option for treatment of schizophrenia in both men and women, as it has shown to reduce the severity of symptoms. Supplemental estrogen has also been shown to increase the effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs, as many of these drugs also result in the inhibition of the dopaminergic pathway.

Men and estrogen?

An interesting and potentially controversial finding is that men who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia have lower levels of estrogen than men without the disorder. Estrogen therapy is therefore a legitimate form of treatment for men as well as women. However, it seems unlikely that all men would view estrogen therapy as a treatment option they would consider, as there is a common misconception that this supplemental estrogen would promote the development of female characteristics in men. However, estrogen therapy for schizophrenia is administered at a far lower dose than the estrogen used for the development of secondary female characteristics. Despite scientific evidence that proves that estrogen as a treatment in the context of schizophrenia will not promote “feminisation” of men, it is quite difficult to convince men to utilize this form of treatment due to this unfortunate myth. 

Looking ahead

Estrogen therapy in a clinical setting proves itself to be an encouraging option in the future of treatment for schizophrenia. Estrogen supplementation in low doses undermines the intense severity of many of the symptoms of schizophrenia, without causing the potentially damaging side effects that arise with traditional antipsychotic drug use. However, myths and stereotypes regarding the “feminisation” of men continue to serve as an obstacle in the treatment of men using this hormone. Continued research and experimentation will be extremely helpful in both minimizing the prevalence of the myths surrounding estrogen therapy in men and understanding the potential of estrogen to increase the quality of life for those struggling with schizophrenia. 

Abstract/Featured Image created by S. Wiger 

 

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