Cobbers on the Brain

Advancements in technology of today’s age is making it harder and harder to disconnect from the rest of the world. This inability to disconnect seems to be having a negative consequence on our overall health, especially our mental health. Our brains, in essence, are an evolved piece of hardware that was programmed to live in a world where real physical threats, such as lions and tigers and bears (Oh my!) – not a world where the biggest stressor is something someone said on a social media website. Since our brains are programmed to worry about evolutionary pressures that no longer exist, we are now left worrying over petty aspects of our lives’. This constant worry could be changing our genes that alter our memory and lead to memories that impact our everyday lives’.

If you wish to not get muddled by scientific jargon of this stress response and consolidation of memories, I suggest you bypass this next section and go to the basic 8 step mechanism.

Scientific Mechanism

When we encounter stress, our bodies release various molecules related to the stress (hormones called glucocorticoids and neurotransmitters such as glutamate. The glucocorticoids travel throughout the entire body; ultimately, reaching the part of the brain responsible for storing memories – the hippocampus. Within is the hippocampus is an area known as the dentate gyrus (DG), which plays a major role in the formation and storage of new memories¹. Once the glucocorticoids reach the DG, they facilitate signaling of the ERK-MAPK signaling pathway¹. This activation causes a cascade of events that leads to the activation of MSK1 and ELK-1, two nuclear kinases of the DG¹. Activation of these nuclear kinases results in serine10 (S10) phosphorylation and lysine14 (K14) acetylation at histone H3 (H3S10p-K14ac)¹. The phosphorylation and acetylation at this “mark” allows for the DNA, which is in the form of condensed chromatin, to be “opened” for transcription factors to act upon and alter the genes, such as Fos and Egr, for consolidation of memories¹.

8 Simple Steps

Consolidation of memories can be boiled down to as simple as:

1. Stress response releases messengers in the body (glucocorticoids)
2. Messengers travel to the memory part of the brain (hippocampus)
3. Messengers activate a receptor on neurons (glucocorticoid receptor)
4. Receptor activation turns on a pathway (ERK-MAPK pathway)
5. Pathway causes a cascade of events (MSK1 and ELK-1 activation)
6. Ultimately, this cascade causes opening of DNA (H3S10p-K14ac marker)
7. DNA is “read” leading to consolidation of memories (c-Fos and Egr-1 is transcribed)
8. Consolidation of memories

Sometimes this response is so severe that is lasts and is reoccurring, often seen with individuals seen with PTSD.

^{https://www.everydayhealth.com/anxiety/anxiety-and-depression.aspx}

How to reduce stress: Exercise!!!

If you are a college student like me, you are no stranger to stress. During finals, the levels of stress seem to weigh you down. Everyone deals with stress in their lives’. Some people seem to do just fine coping with stressors in their life, while others may struggle a little more. If you are one who tends to struggle with anxiety, try exercising! Studies have exhibited that exercise has a calming effect when someone becomes stressed. Exercise increased levels of GABA, the major inhibitor molecule, in the brain². GABA calms the firing of neurons that causes the feeling of anxiety. A specific study showed that participants who exercised responded better to stress, increasing the levels of GABA as opposed to the participants who did not exercise³. Seek advice from a doctor if anxiety seems too much to bear. However, maybe the only prescription someone needs in order to feel less anxious is to exercise more! GABA levels increase with more exercise, diminishing the activity of neurons that lead to anxiety; thus, calming the hippocampus. Maybe, all you need to do is just sweat out the anxiety.

1. https://moodle.cord.edu/pluginfile.php/708065/mod_resource/content/0/anxiety%20making%20memories%20from%20stressful%20events.pdf
2. https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/03/how-exercise-can-calm-anxiety/
3. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/02/160225101241.htm

Alzheimer’s Disease:

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and is characterized by memory loss and loss of other cognitive abilities that interfere with everyday life. The majority of individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease are greater than 65 years of age, however, some individuals who acquire the disease at a younger age are diagnosed with early-onset Alzheimer’s Disease. AD is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease that worsens over time and is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. The disease also has a spectrum of severity, where in its mild stage, it will just beginning to affect a person’s functions and in its most severe stage, a person can depend completely on others for aid in their basic activities of daily living. There is no known cause of Alzheimer’s, however there are many aspects that can play into the overall diagnosis and symptoms of Alzheimer’s, including genetic, environmental, and lifestyle. One of these possible causes is that Alzheimer’s is passed through genetics. If a family member has been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s Disease, there is a slightly greater risk that an individual older than 65 will develop Alzheimer’s. However, if an individual is younger than 65, there is a much greater risk of developing AD. Another major aspect of the cause of AD is the role of plaques and tangles in the brain. Plaques are deposits of beta-amyloid protein fragments that build up in spaces between nerve cells and tangles are twisted fibers of tau that build up inside cells. Both of these abnormal structures play a role in the destruction of nerve cells. AD brains show build-ups of these structures, especially in areas of the brain crucial for memory. Plaques and tangles are thought to play a role in blocking nerve cell communication and disrupting cell processes. The death of nerve cells is what causes memory failure and cognitive issues. In the case of genetics, there has been one gene that has been found to be involved in late-onset Alzheimer’s, and that is the apolipoprotein E gene. Typically, if a person carries this gene, they will have a greater risk of developing the disease. Another connection is that the majority of people diagnosed with Down syndrome will develop Alzheimer’s disease. There are many symptoms that may be signs of AD, but the most common include difficulty remembering information, memory loss, confusion, disorientation, mood and behavior changes, losing pleasure in activities, difficulty speaking or swallowing, and muscular difficulties. Since the only way to truly tell if a person has AD is to observe abnormalities in their brain tissue, AD can only be fully diagnosed after death when the brain can be examined in an autopsy. The changes in the brain often begin to occur about a decade before symptoms begin to show. To diagnose Alzheimer’s, doctors will look at health and family records, conduct tests of memory, language, and problem solving, carry out medical tests, and perform brain scans to rule out other causes of symptoms. Since there is no current cure for AD, survival after diagnosis can range from four to twenty years. Current treatments focus on managing the symptoms, which can overall help to slow the progression of the disease. This can include various medications to treat symptoms by managing neurotransmitter release, managing behavior such as agitation or anxiety, and various types of therapies.

Type II Diabetes:

Type II Diabetes is the most common form of diabetes and occurs when the body does not use insulin properly, which is insulin resistance. This can also occur when the body does not produce enough insulin. Insulin comes from the pancreas and is circulated into the bloodstream to allow glucose to enter the cells. Insulin also lowers sugar levels in the bloodstream. In Type II diabetes, the pancreas cannot keep up with the deficient insulin productions and blood glucose levels start to fluctuate. The glucose starts to build up in the blood and causes cells to lose energy and affect your kidneys, nerves, and heart. Some people can control their Type II diabetes, but typically the disease worsens over time. There are many risk factors of Type II diabetes, including weight, inactivity, family history, age, and others. Some symptoms of Type II diabetes include increased thirst and frequent urination, increased hunger, weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, frequent infections, or areas of darkened skin. Symptoms vary person to person, but any of these symptoms can be a sign to see a doctor. To be diagnosed, doctors will run a blood test to measure your blood glucose levels. There is no cure for this disease, however Type II Diabetes is typically treated with lifestyle changes, oral medications, and insulin injections.

The Connection Between Diabetes and Alzheimer’s:

Insulin Signaling:

Insulin resistance is a characteristic of Type II diabetes and has been proven to be a common mechanism connecting diabetes and AD. This can be caused by oligomers of the ABOs, which causes insulin insensitivity and the removals of insulin receptors. The insulin signaling pathway is impaired in AD brains and as neurons become degraded, there is less insulin in the brain, causing impaired cognitive function. Insulin receptors are distributed in the brain and when insulin reaches the brain, it is synthesized by pancreatic beta-cells. Insulin is supposedly neuroprotective and helps with neuronal survival, however in Alzheimer’s, as neurons are being destroyed, there is not enough insulin to protect the neurons from the plaques and tangles. By boosting insulin signaling with drugs or therapies, this neurodegeneration can be slowed and neurons and pathways can be protected. Both diseases cause insulin resistance.

Inflammation:

In Type II diabetes, insulin resistance often exhibits itself as inflammation, mediated by macrophages. AD also presents with an inflammatory state, mediated by microglia. Activation and secretion of cytokines occur by microglia and cause an inflammatory reaction in AD. By sustained inflammation acting as a trigger, insulin resistance in AD occurs and leads to insulin resistance in diabetes.

Gangliosides:

A ganglioside is a group of lipids present in the gray matter of the brain. In diabetes, ganglioside GM3 is the mediator of insulin resistance. Without GM3, there is enhanced insulin sensitivity. Ganglioside GM1 is involved in the development of insulin receptors. Gangliosides are also known to have a role in the pathogenesis of AD, showing that gangliosides are a factor of causing insulin resistance in both diabetes and AD. The dysregulation of gangliosides causes insulin issues in both diseases. Diabetes causes an increase in the development of plaques and amyloid deposition, both characteristics of AD.

These are just three of the many different ways Alzheimer’s disease is connected to Type II diabetes. By finding the connections between the two diseases, there may be more opportunities for treatments, therapies, and hopefully someday a cure. The impact of both diseases on a individual and an individual’s family can have great impacts on not only their personal life, but also the lives surrounding them. To increase a person’s quality of life, it is important that scientists continue the search for connections of both diseases to the factors that are impacting them.

https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-alzheimers

https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet

http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/type-2/facts-about-type-2.html

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20351193

https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/type-2-diabetes#2

Everyone experiences stress in their life, whether that being from school, work, or daily life. Imagine never getting to escape those stresses. That’s exactly what individuals who suffer from anxiety and PTSD experience on a daily basis. Strong psychologically stressful events are known to have a long-lasting effect on the behavior of an individual. The consolidation of these stressful events can lead to changes in gene expression and hippocampal function causing stress-related mental disorders such as major depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and PTSD. Though the understanding of this process is still largely unknown, scientists are making advances in their research quite rapidly giving us a much better idea of the causes behind these illnesses.

What is Anxiety:
Anxiety disorders are a group of mental illness that includes panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, specific phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder. Symptoms include panic, fear, sleeping problems, inability to stay calm or still, shortness of breath, dizziness, tense muscles, and a variety of other symptoms.

What is PTSD:
PTSD is a disorder that develops in some individuals who have experienced a shocking, scary, traumatic or dangerous event. Of course, everyone experiences fear and shock in a traumatic event due to the “fight or flight” response, yet those who never recover from the initial symptoms may be diagnosed with PTSD. These individuals can feel frightened or in danger in normal, everyday situations. To be diagnosed with PTSD, symptoms must last more than a month and be severe enough to interfere with relationships or work to be considered PTSD. The patient must also have at least one re-experiencing symptom, at least one avoidance symptom, at least two arousal and reactivity symptoms, and at least two cognition and mood symptoms.

Memory:
Making memories is vital to our life functioning, obviously. But is there such thing as too much memory? Memories allow us to interact spatially, socially, and with our environment. They are crucial in our ability to adapt as they prepare us cognitively, emotionally, and physiologically for similar situations we may see in the future. However, the memories we make during more traumatic events in our life are much stronger as they have a larger impact on us as individuals. When these memories become too strong in certain individuals, they can develop symptoms associated with anxiety and PTSD. Why these memories become so strong are unknown, but certain social factors can predispose individuals toward the development of PTSD as their adaptation and coping mechanisms can fail. It is estimated that 10-20% of the population will develop a stress-related disorder after experiencing a traumatic event, but why is still largely unknown.

When they body is exposed to a traumatic event, it releases glucocorticoids which bind to receptors. This binding triggers a cascade of events which then activates a protein called EKR. EKR then works to activate ELK-1 and eventually a molecule that modifies histones.

Histones wrap DNA around themselves for consolidation within the cell, controlling which segments of DNA are exposed to be transcribed. When these histones are modified, areas that are not normally able to be expressed can become exposed.

Treatment:

Medication:
Medications used to treat PTSD are almost always used in conjunction with psychotherapy as they can treat symptoms commonly associated with the disorder but cannot relieve a person in terms of flashbacks or feelings associated with the original trauma. These medications only treat symptoms as they mechanism for this strong memory consolidation is sill largely unknown

• The most commonly prescribed class of medication for PTSD (and approved by the FDA) are the serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants. These include drugs such as fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), and paroxetine (Paxil). This group of medication tend to decrease anxiety, depression, and panic associated with PTSD. These may also help reduce aggression, impulsivity, and suicidal thoughts. These medications usually take 6-8 weeks to work, and many people need to try several types of these antidepressant before they find one that works for them. Relapse of PTSD is less likely when on the medication for longer than one year. These types of medications are especially useful in individuals who have issues with substance abuse or suffer from depression.
• The most common alternative to antidepressants for PTSD are atypical antipsychotics. Atypical antipsychotics include medications such as risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and quetiapine (Seroquel). Antipsychotic medicines seem to be most useful in the treatment of PTSD in those who suffer from agitation, dissociation, hypervigilance, intense suspiciousness (paranoia), or brief breaks in being in touch with reality (brief psychotic reactions).
• Other medications include mood stabilizers and benzodiazepines ( commonly referred to as minor tranquilizers, sleeping tablets, or anti-anxiety medications)

Psychotherapy:
Trauma-focused psychotherapy, otherwise known as “talk therapy”, is the most effective type of talk therapy for PTSD. There are three most common types of treatments and these have the most research support. In each of these therapies, the patient usually talks with the therapies once a week for 60-90 minutes and last 3-6 months. The therapist teaches the patient specific skills to manage their PTSD symptoms.
• Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) Teaches you to reframe negative thoughts about the trauma. It involves talking with your provider about your negative thoughts and doing short writing assignments.
• Prolonged Exposure (PE) Teaches you how to gain control by facing your negative feelings. It involves talking about your trauma with a provider and doing some of the things you have avoided since the trauma.
• Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Helps you process and make sense of your trauma. It involves calling the trauma to mind while paying attention to a back-and-forth movement or sound (like a finger waving side to side, a light, or a tone).

Bibliography:

https://psychcentral.com/disorders/ptsd/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-treatment/

https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand_tx/tx_basics.asp

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml

https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/anxiety-disorders#1

Anxiety is a common feeling that is a part of every person’s life and can arise due to various situations. However, anxiety disorders include long-term fear and worry with symptoms that can affect every day life. There are many types of anxiety disorders that involve many different symptoms, all of which include persisting worries. The most common anxiety disorders are generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and other phobia-related disorders.

There are many risk factors of an anxiety disorder, including genetic and environmental aspects. Some common risk factors are temperamental traits of shyness in childhood, exposure to stressful and negative life events in early childhood/adulthood, history of anxiety or other mental illnesses, and some physical health conditions.

There are many, varying symptoms of anxiety disorders, but there are some general symptoms across most anxiety disorders. These include panic, fear, sleep problems, difficulty staying calm, sweaty or tingling hands or feet, shortness of breath, heart palpitations, dry mouth, nausea, tense muscles, and dizziness.

Common treatments for anxiety disorders are psychotherapy and medication. Psychotherapy involves talking and discussing a person’s specific anxieties to find the best treatment for what they need. This includes cognitive behavioral therapy, which helps to teach people ways of thinking, behaving, and reacting to stressful situations and objects. Cognitive therapy, which focuses on identifying, challenging, then neutralizing negative thoughts related to anxieties and exposure therapy, which focuses on confronting fears and worries are both examples of cognitive behavioral therapies. Medication does not cure anxiety disorders, but it does help to relieve symptoms of anxiety, panic attacks, fear, worry, and changing moods. Some other therapies for individuals struggling with anxiety disorders may benefit from support groups or stress management techniques. 

When a traumatic event occurs, there is a long-lasting impact on behavior and changes in the brain occur, specifically in the hippocampus and amygdala. The hippocampus regulates emotions and is important in long-term memory. The amygdala is responsible for emotional responses and memory. Both of these brain structures play a role in the response to a stressful situation and the retainment of memories from that experience. The anxiety felt from a stressful situation can inhibit and impair the memories of that experience, causing the formation of strong memories, but negatively affecting the ability to adapt and cope with trauma and stress. There are many parts of the brain affected and conformational changes that are caused by stressors.

The dentate gyrus helps to form new memories and is located in the hippocampus. The main parts of the brain involved in working memory, which is memory that holds 7 items or less at a time and is the ability to remember and process information at the same time, are the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. Another main aspect of memory are hormones called glucocorticoids, which includes the main hormone for the stress response and play a role in restoring homeostasis after a stressful situation. Glucocorticoids bind to glucocorticoid receptors (GRs), which are crucial in encoding, processing, and retaining the information of emotional events. The activation of GRs cause a response to stress and long-term changes in the brain leading to the formation of long-term memories of the stressful experience. Moderate stress levels can have a positive effect on memory and brain function, but too much trauma or stress can cause memory loss, cognitive impairments, or increase risk of developing an anxiety disorder.

Overall, stress and anxiety disorders are greatly impacted by areas of the brain can inhibit or stimulate memory when presented with different situations. The difficulty with mental illnesses such as anxiety disorders is all of the possible factors that can be involved and how specific situations can cause changes in the brain that affect the individual for a lifetime. There are still so many unknowns and underlying factors with anxiety disorders, making treatment and future research difficult. Individuals dealing with anxiety disorders all experience them in different ways, which leads to many therapies being geared specifically toward that individual. This can cause deficits to a person’s treatment at first, as finding the right treatment plan for each individual looks different and takes time to discover.

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml

The Body:

What can’t it do?

It is no mystery that exercise is good for you. Why else would physical education be required in grade school? The extent of the importance of exercise is known oftentime people don’t know the entire picture. Sure, it increases heart health, controls weight, increases muscle mass but it also helps with a myriad of other things including regulating the effects of stress on the body.

Figure 1: There are many ways that exercise can benefit mental health and this figure is just a small snapshot of some of the ways that exercise reduces stress

Source: http://stress-relief-help.com/natural-stress-relief/mindfulness-based-stress-reduction-technique/?stress-relief-help=641903753110408607

A common effect that is seen with stress and several types of mental illness is insomnia. Exercising can increase sleep and sleep quality! Although the way that exercise benefits sleep is still unknown to scientists, researchers at John Hopkins medical school find that exercise increases the amount of slow wave sleep an individual gets. The more slow wave sleep, the more the body has a chance to heal and be ready for the next day.  

There are many effects of exercise on the body and how it increases not only the quality of day to day life but overall life expectancy. The effects on the body are clearly notable, as said above, and have benefits on their own but improving overall self-esteem and outlook are linked to exercise as well. An increase in cognitive functioning is observed as well as relieving tension, which begs the questions — what are you waiting for?

The Brain:

Pump it up!

Exercise increases the amount of the neurotransmitter endorphins in the brain. There are twenty known types of endorphins and are mainly found in the pituitary gland as well as several areas throughout the brain and the nervous system. In this instance, the release of endorphins is called a runner’s high and in addition to this feel good rush of emotions that occurs after exercise, endorphins are also responsible for lowering painful feelings. The receptors that endorphins bind to in the brain are the same ones that are bound to by pain relieving drugs but there is no dependence associated with natural occurring endorphins. The release of endorphins, as said above, is associated with the good vibes that come after exercise and combat not only feelings of stress but are associated with alleviating mental illnesses as well.  

Figure 2:  This hypothetical scan illustrates the areas of the brain before and after moderate amounts of exercise in an individual and the increased amount of endorphins.

Source: http://reset.me/story/this-is-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-experience-happiness/

Exercise Queen by GABA: The ABBA cover band of your dreams

Figure 3: These are a few of the ways that you can increase the amount of GABA in the brain which is linked to the reduction of stress.

Source: https://drjockers.com/gaba/

When it comes to stress there is a delicate balance of excitation and inhibition in the brain. The two main neurotransmitters responsible for these phenomenon are glutamate and GABA, respectively. The body responds to stressors in multiple different ways including the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This axis ends in the eventual release of cortisol, a stress hormone, from the adrenal glands atop the kidneys. There are several stress relieving effects that cortisol has on the body including increases the amount of glutamate in the brain. The increase in glutamate also increases the number of free radicals, unattached oxygen molecules, that can do damage to surrounding cells. In addition to this, it is found that there are less amounts of GABA in the brain. Often if you are lacking in GABA you feel overstimulated and on edge all the time. This is because there is not enough inhibition in the brain and too much excitation caused the glutamate. Exercise can also increase the amount of GABA (but really, what can’t exercise do)!

In one mouse study conducted by Princeton University the mice were separated into two groups: one that subjected to exercise and one that were not. There was an increase in both glutamate in both groups but there was also an increase in GABA receptors in the exercise group. The groups were then put into an ice bath, as a method to induce stress, and the amount of firing was measured. It was found in the there was increase glutamate firing for both groups but the group that underwent exercise released GABA and were calmed until retrieved from the water. This demonstrates that the build up of GABA acquired during exercise can be released during stressful situations and diminish the amount of stress felt during these times. This emphasizes the importance of exercise in not only brain health but overall well being.

References:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/exercise-and-stress/art-20044469

https://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/exercise-depression#1

http://2018neurochem.pbworks.com/w/page/128067393/Making%20memories%20of%20stressful%20events

https://spinalresearch.com.au/chronic-stress-effects-brain/

https://bebrainfit.com/gaba-supplements-stress-anxiety/

https://medlineplus.gov/benefitsofexercise.html

It’s finals week. You have a to-do list over a mile long and are running on little to no sleep. You have consumed more coffee in the past two days than you have in your entire life. You’re stressed. This kind of stress, although unhealthy, will probably not have a lasting effect on the way you live your life, and soon, your finals week is over.

You decide to drive home to St. Paul, Minnesota for winter break. Suddenly, you hit a patch of black ice on I-94. Your car begins sliding, you lose control, and before you know it you’re hanging upside down in a ditch. Your heart is pounding, your mind is racing, and everything around you is black.

The car accident is now months past you, and you still have no desire to drive again. The memories of that night are forever embedded in your memory. You remember every detail of that night even though you can’t remember what you had for lunch yesterday. Why is that?

The answer may shock you: traumatic life experiences can actually lead to changes in your genes that alter your memory. 

It all starts with the stress response…

When we encounter stress, our bodies release hormones called glucocorticoids. These glucocorticoids do a lot to our bodies under stress, but in the case of altering memory, they are the signals that signal a pathway that will eventually lead to altered gene expression.

So how does this work?

1. You experience a traumatic stressor (car accident, death of a loved one, the list goes on and on…)
2. Your body reacts to the trauma by releasing various molecules related to stress (such as glucocorticoid hormones and glutamate (a neurotransmitter involved in anxiety)).
3. These glucocorticoids travel throughout your entire body, but most importantly, they travel to an area of the brain associated with the formation of long-term memories. This area is known as the dentate gyrus. It is part of the hippocampus and plays a huge role in the formation and storage of new memories. 

   

4. In order for the glucocorticoids to alter memory, they must influence a pathway that plays important roles in the formation of memory. This pathway is known as the NMDA/ERK1/2/MSK1/2-Elk-1 pathway.
5.  In addition to having a long name, this pathway is also responsible for activating the molecules responsible for altering one’s genes.
6. It’s as simple as this:
   1. The activation of the pathway in combination with the glucocorticoids leads to the activation of two different molecules (MSK1 and Elk-1)
   2. These molecules are responsible for putting a “mark” on proteins known as histones, (these proteins are what organize the 6-feet of DNA that you have into your body into your tiny microscopic cells).
   3. This mark is what tells your gene editing machinery to set up shop on your genes and alter how they are read by your body.
   4. After setting up shop, all of the different tools (transcription factors, binding proteins, etc.) will get to work.
   5. Their finished product? Altered genes that are responsible for the reason your car accident is still so fresh in your mind.

Because they are so strongly encoded, these memories can actually be quite harmful as they tend to pop up in everyday life. This is the case for individuals living with PTSD and other stress-related mental disorders. 

There are many individuals that have never experienced a traumatic event, and then there are those for whom trauma is all too familiar.  Although not every traumatic experience will result in changing your way of life, those that do are worth mentioning.

Imagine going through your daily routine without being able to spend more than five minutes without your traumatic experience creeping its way into your thoughts. You begin to fear another traumatic event happening to you and decide to isolate yourselves from the outside world and the people you love. You avoid sleep because you fear that your traumatic event will show itself in your nightmares. You become depressed, anxious, and your sense of self-worth plummets. Your entire life has changed.

This is what life is like for someone with severe PTSD.

Here are a few facts that have been collected from the PTSD Alliance:

• Nearly 70 percent of adults will experience a traumatic event in their lifetime with over 20 percent of those adults developing PTSD.
• Women are twice as likely as men to develop PTSD.
• Individuals with anxiety or individuals who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event in the past are more likely to develop PTSD.So what can we do about it?
  • Recognize the Symptoms
    • https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/symptoms
  • Help Individuals Get Help:
    • Here are a few helpful tips to help those suffering from PTSD:
      • https://www.nami.org/Learn-More/Mental-Health-Conditions/Posttraumatic-Stress-Disorder/Support
  • Be Understanding: Show Support and Empathy
    • Here is a list of 22 different ways to support someone with PTSD written by people who have it:
      • https://themighty.com/2016/03/22-ways-to-support-someone-with-ptsd-from-people-who-have-it/

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Fact Sheet

https://moodle.cord.edu/pluginfile.php/708065/mod_resource/content/0/anxiety%20making%20memories%20from%20stressful%20events.pdf