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A World Without Empathy: An Insight into Antisocial Personality Disorder

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pexels.com stock photo by Darya Sannikova

 

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is a mental health condition characterized by disregard for the rights of others, impulsivity, and a lack of empathy. Environmental factors such as childhood experiences, parenting style, and social influences can contribute to the development of ASPD. Childhood abuse, neglect, and inconsistent discipline can increase the risk of developing ASPD. Parental antisocial behavior, substance abuse, and criminal behavior can also contribute to the development of the disorder. Additionally, exposure to peer pressure, deviant behavior, and criminal activities can increase the likelihood of developing ASPD. Environmental factors can interact with genetic predispositions to shape the development of the disorder, highlighting the importance of early intervention and prevention efforts [4].

 

Genetics

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) has been found to have a strong genetic component, with heritability estimates ranging from 40% to 70%. The LINC00951 gene has recently been identified as a potential genetic risk factor for antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Research has found that individuals with ASPD have decreased expression of LINC00951 in the prefrontal cortex compared to those without the disorder. This gene is involved in the regulation of neuronal gene expression and plays a role in the development of the prefrontal cortex, a brain region implicated in the pathology of ASPD. Decreased expression of LINC00951 may contribute to impaired prefrontal cortical function, which is associated with the impulsivity and disregard for others’ rights characteristic of ASPD. Further research is needed to fully understand the role of LINC00951 in the development of ASPD [3].

 

ASPD and the Brain

Recent advances in neuroscience have shed light on the neural correlates of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Studies have found differences in brain structure and function between individuals with and without ASPD. For example, reduced gray matter volume in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus have been observed in individuals with ASPD. Functional imaging studies have also revealed abnormalities in brain regions involved in emotion processing, decision making, and empathy. These findings suggest that ASPD may be associated with dysfunction in neural circuits involved in social and emotional processing. Further research in this area may help to inform the development of more effective treatments for ASPD.

 

History and Current Terminology 

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) has a long history of various names and classifications. Early descriptions of the disorder can be traced back to the 1800s, when it was referred to as moral insanity. The term sociopathy was later introduced in the early 1900s, followed by psychopathy in the mid-20th century (Figure 1). In the 1980s, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) introduced the term antisocial personality disorder, which is still in use today. The current DSM-5 criteria for ASPD include a persistent pattern of disregard for the rights of others, impulsivity, and a lack of remorse or guilt. Despite changes in terminology and classifications, the core features of the disorder remain consistent [2].

Figure 1. Antisocial behavior disorder and other mental health disorders

 

ASPD Subtypes

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) can be classified into two subtypes: primary and secondary. Primary ASPD is characterized by fearless dominance, manipulativeness, and a lack of anxiety. These individuals may display charisma and leadership skills, but their behavior is often harmful to others. Secondary ASPD is characterized by impulsivity, aggressiveness, and a lack of remorse or guilt. These individuals may engage in criminal behavior, substance abuse, and risky behaviors. The distinction between these subtypes can be useful in understanding the different underlying mechanisms and treatment approaches for ASPD. However, the diagnosis of ASPD is often based on the presence of a set of specific criteria, rather than subtype classifications.

 

Treatments

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is a challenging condition to treat, as individuals with the disorder often lack motivation to change their behavior and may not perceive their behavior as problematic. However, there are several treatments that have been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of ASPD. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can help individuals with ASPD learn new coping skills, identify and change negative thought patterns, and improve interpersonal functioning (Figure 2). Medications such as mood stabilizers and antidepressants may also be useful in managing conditions such as depression or anxiety [1].

Figure 2. Drug treatment and talk therapy may be helpful for antisocial personality disorder, however this condition is very challenging to treat.

 

Resources

[1] Haelle, T. (2022, October). How to treat antisocial personality disorder. EverydayHealth.com. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from https://www.everydayhealth.com/antisocial-personality-disorder/treatment/

[2] Kiehl, K. A., & Hoffman, M. B. (2011). The criminal psychopath: History, neuroscience, treatment, and economics. Jurimetrics. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/

[3] Tiihonen, J., Koskuvi, M., Lähteenvuo, M., Virtanen, P. L., Ojansuu, I., Vaurio, O., Gao, Y., Hyötyläinen, I., Puttonen, K. A., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Paunio, T., Rautiainen, M.-R., Tyni, S., Koistinaho, J., & Lehtonen, Š. (2019). Neurobiological roots of psychopathy. Molecular Psychiatry, 25(12), 3432–3441. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0488-z

[4] Tuvblad, C., & Beaver, K. M. (2013, September). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior. Journal of criminal justice. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3920596/

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Behind Antisocial Personality Disorder

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Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by aggression, impulsivity, and lack of empathy that can lead to criminal behavior.1 Terms such as psychopathic and sociopathic are not used in formal diagnosing and is not in the DSM-IV-TR. Psychopathy was originally used to describe psychopathic inferiority. These terms are now referred to as antisocial personality disorder in the DSM-IV-TR. Although, psychopathy is commonly known as an extreme version of antisocial personality disorder. Antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy are sometimes used interchangeably. In order to diagnose someone with antisocial personality disorder, they need to be over the age of 18. If someone is showing characteristics of antisocial personality disorder like impulsivity and disregard for others under the age of 18, a diagnosis of conduct disorder would be needed.2

Like every other mental illness, antisocial personality disorder has treatment options. Currently, the treatment options include medication and therapy.

Treatment for antisocial personality disorder (and psychopathy)

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy: CBT seeks to break down existing thought connections in which a trigger causes a harmful action by the creation of new connections with more positive outcomes.
  • Antipsychotics: Since individuals with psychopathy can be violent and aggressive in their thoughts and actions, antipsychotic drugs may help to reduce the urge to harm others.
  • Mood stabilizers: Mood stabilizers can reduce the agitation that can lead those with psychopathic tendencies to act violently.

Although antisocial personality disorder is nothing that can be changed, harm reduction and symptom management can improve quality of life.3

Culprits Behind Antisocial Personality Disorder

Antisocial personality disorder, like many other mental illnesses, has been thought to stem from genetic and environmental factors. Two genes in particular are overexpressed, RPL10P9 and ZNF132. RPL10P9 and ZNF132 are found to be expressed in the cerebellum.4 The cerebellum can play a role in the regulating social dominance and aggression.5

Environmental factors largely rely on being in an adverse environment. A study involving adopted children showed that an adverse adoptive home environment in addition to genetic factors can result in psychopathology. In a twin study on peer group norms, it was found that when aggression was favorable the genetic disposition was more likely to be expressed.6

Stigma

Those with antisocial personality disorder are thought of as monsters. They are often cast out from society. We see people with antisocial personality disorder in prison or death row. While these people are cast out, they are not given a chance to change. And once they are labeled as “psychopath,” they do not get a chance to live outside of that label. All of this is detrimental for the person’s quality of life. The life expectancy for someone with antisocial disorder is roughly 13 years earlier than those without antisocial personality disorder.7 Giving those a chance to receive treatment could possibly change this outcome.

Treatment around antisocial personality disorder is limited and the stigma around it may contribute to this problem. Current treatment has high rates of dropout. People with antisocial personality disorder tend to not take treatment seriously and lack understanding of their own condition.3 New treatments need to be explored to remedy this. Additionally, the threat antisocial personality disorder imposes on the general public due to the high rates of criminal activity in this disorder prove that treatment is important and it’s important to catch this early.

People with antisocial personality disorder must not be cast aside and be forgotten about. People with this disorder are still human and therefore must be treated with dignity and respect. They need a fighting chance to better themselves.

  1. Tiihonen, J., Koskuvi, M., Lähteenvuo Markku, Virtanen, P. L. J., Ojansuu, I., Vaurio, O., Gao, Y., Hyötyläinen Ida, Puttonen, K. A., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Paunio, T., Rautiainen, M.-R., Tyni, S., Koistinaho, J., & Lehtonen Šárka. (2019). Neurobiological roots of psychopathy. Molecular Psychiatry, 25(12), 3432–3441. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0488-z
  2. Meyer, G. R., & Weaver, C. M. (2013). Case studies in abnormal behavior. Pearson Education, Inc.
  3. Leeson, Cathy. (2022, October 13). What is a psychopath? Signs, causes, and treatment. Therapist.com. https://therapist.com/disorders/psychopathy/
  4. Gene Cards: The Human Gene Database. (2023, March 21). RPL10P9 Gene – Ribosomal protein L10 pseudogene 9. https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=RPL10P9#expression
  5. Chen, C. H., Schott, A. L., & Schnaude, D. (2019). Cerebellar modulation of the reward circuitry and social behavior. Science, 363(6424). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav0581
  6. Tuvblad, C., & Beaver, K. M. (2013). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior. Journal of criminal justice, 41(5), 273–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2013.07.007
  7. Krasnova, A., Eaton, W. W., & Samuels, J. F. (2019). Antisocial personality and risks of cause-specific mortality: results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study with 27 years of follow-up. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 54(5), 617–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1628-5
Community/Disease/Health

The Making of a Psychopath

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What is a psychopath?

Most likely when you think of a psychopath, you probably think of a person like Jeffrey Dahmer, Ted Bundy, and John Wayne Gacy. Although they may be categorized as psychopaths, what actually defines them as such? Yes, they were serial killers, but that’s not a required “symptom” of a psychopath. So, what is a psychopath then?

Psychopathy is a very extreme form of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). A person cannot be given the diagnosis of psychopath, those are merely traits given to a person who suffers from ASPD. ASPD is just one of the ten types of personality disorders. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders defines ASPD as an individual who shows a continued pattern of disregard and violation of other peoples rights, emerging around the age of 15 with three or more of the following symptoms:

  1. Repeatedly breaking the law
  2. Repeatedly lying for personal gain or pleasure
  3. Impulsivity
  4. Irritability and aggression towards others
  5. Reckless disregard for the safety of others
  6. Consistently irresponsible
  7. Lack of remorse
Figure 1. A few characteristics of a psychopath.

 

Nature vs. Nurture

When we talk about any personality trait or quality a person has, scientists like to refer to the “nature” of the person as well as the “nurture.” Nature refers to the biological makeup, or the genetics a person has. Nurture, on the other hand, is how a person grew up, how they were treated as a child, and their life experiences. Figure 2, below, shows these contributing factors. It’s believed that both nature and nurture contribute to the life of a psychopath. Although there is a strong biological component, which will be explained later on, there are also environmental factors that contribute to this disease. Some of these factors may be neglect, abuse, and poor parenting.

Figure 2. The nature vs nurture of a human.

Neurobiological Roots of Psychopathy

When determining what could be going wrong in the brain, researchers found that those who were diagnosed as antisocial with psychopathic traits showed abnormal glucose metabolism and opiodergic neurotransmission in their brain. Abnormal glucose metabolism that leads to hypoglycemia has come to be one of the strongest predictors for violent crimes. One study followed individuals for eight years, hypothesizing that decreased glucose uptake in the prefrontal cortex of the brain led to violent crimes being committed by antisocial males. Over this eight year period, researchers were able to determine that 27% of the violent crimes could be explained by the decreased glucose uptake. From this study, researchers determined that substances that increase glycogen formation and decrease the risk of hypoglycemia could act as potential treatments for impulsive violent behavior.

Conclusion

Labeling someone as “psycho” or “crazy” is something many people do. But, neither of those terms are diagnoses. If a person truly is “crazy,” they most likely suffer from  an antisocial personality disorder with psychotic features. Nature and nurture both play a major role in understanding what creates a psychopath. But, most importantly, there are multiple neurobiological roots that contribute to this disease. Glucose metabolism, and opiodergic neurotransmission are two that researchers know about currently. Knowing whether or not there is more that contributes to the root of psychopathy isn’t quite known but researchers hope to understand more in the future.

 

References:

Antisocial Personality Disorder: Often Overlooked and Untreated

How Glucose Metabolism Works

Low Blood Sugar (Hypoglycemia)

Low non-oxidative glucose metabolism and violent offending: An 8-year perspective follow-up story

Nature vs. Nurture

Neurobiological roots of psychopathy

Psychopathic Personality Traits and Environmental Contexts: Differential Correlates, Gender Differences, and Genetic Mediation

The role of the opioid system in decision making and cognitive control: A review

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An Overview of Psychopathy

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What is Psychopathy?

Psychopathy is generally considered to be a more severe form of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Though it is important to note that there are differences between the two disorders. To start off, psychopathy is not an official diagnosis is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which is used by the majority of mental health professionals to diagnose mental illnesses. ASPD is found in the DSM-5 and is considered to be an official diagnosis.

Both of these disorders display very similar symptoms which is why it is easy to get them confused. Psychopathy is marked by a lack of empathy, shallow emotions, impulsiveness, manipulative behavior, lack of remorse and guilt, and a disregard for social norms and the law.

While ASPD is marked by a disregard for and a violation of the rights of others, impulsiveness, aggression, lack of empathy, guilt, and remorse, irresponsibility, disregard for societal norms and laws, and substance abuse. Adults diagnosed with ASPD must also have been diagnosed with a different disorder called conduct disorder as a child or teenager. This is because the DSM doesn’t allow for children to be diagnosed with personality disorders, but ASPD generally begins to develop during a person’s mid-teenage years.

It is important to note that the most important difference between psychopathy and ASPD is that psychopathy is defined more by personality traits while ASPD is defined more by observable behaviors. However, neither of these disorders automatically makes a persona violent or a criminal.

 

How is the brain affected?

The direct cause of psychopathy and general antisocial behavior is still unknown, but there have been new discoveries on the genetic irregularities behind the disorder. Certain genes like PRL109 and ZNF132 have been found to be abnormally upregulated in people with psychopathy that have committed violent crimes. ZNF132 had the strongest association and is a gene linked to developmental and malignant disorders. It was found to have very high levels in the neurons found in the cerebellum. The cerebellum is not only in charge of fine motor movements but has also been found to regulate our social behaviors. The cerebellum does this by affecting the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) which is linked to our reward system. If there is too much of the gene ZNF132 in the cerebellum this causes the cerebellum to release incorrect of amounts of DA which could negatively affect social behaviors.

Another gene that was found to be important for the antisocial behaviors of psychopathy is the OPCML gene. This gene affects the opiate receptors in are brain. These receptors are important for regulating processes of pain, pleasure and reward. A dysregulation of the OPCML gene causes these receptors to not do their job effectively which adds to the explanation of antisocial behaviors. This gene can also help explain why people with psychopathy and ASPD are often also diagnosed with substance abuse disorders.

Finally, there has been a connection made between insulin resistance and antisocial behaviors. This insulin resistance is connected to abnormal glucose metabolism that is marked by the downregulation of the gene PSMD3. These abnormalities have been connected to impulsive and violent behaviors. This is possibly because the brain relies heavily on glucose and when it cannot metabolize glucose correctly this puts stress on the neurons and causes further dysregulation of functions throughout the brain, leading to antisocial and violent behaviors.

 

What can be done?

Unfortunately, there are not many treatments for psychopathy. This is partially because there is very limited research of the disorder. Currently to go-to for treating both psychopathy and ASPD is counseling or therapy. This counseling focuses on trying to teach people with psychopathy how to manage their behaviors and regulate their emotions. This treatment also focuses on teaching them how to recognize their behavior and interact effectively with others. For ASPD, some medications can be used to manage any severe anger or depressive symptoms.

But there is a new form of treatment emerging called the decompression model. This model of treatment has been tested on youths in Wisconsin that have been diagnosed with conduct disorder and have been arrested for criminal behavior. This model focuses on a positive reward system for good behavior rather than a punishment system for bad behavior. The aim of this treatment is to teach young adults with conduct disorder the benefits of following social norms so they will be less likely to resort back to criminal behavior. This treatment has shown impressive results, but more research still needs to be done to determine its efficacy for widespread use.

 

References

Fisher, K. A., & Hany, M. (2022, August 15). Antisocial Personality Disorder . National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/home/.

Pomeroy, R. (2014, July 11). Can psychopaths be cured? . Real Clear Science. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.realclearscience.com/blog/2014/07/can_psychopaths_be_cured.html.

Promises Behavioral Health. (2023, March 1). Psychopathy vs. antisocial personality disorder. Promises Behavioral Health. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.promises.com/addiction-blog/psychopathy-vs-antisocial-personality-disorder/.

Tiihonen, J., Koskuvi, M., Lahteenvuo, M., Virtanen, P. L. J., Ojansuu, I., Vaurio, O., Gao, Y., Hyotylainen, I., Puttonen, K. A., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Paunio, T., Rautiainen, M. R., Tyni, S., Koistinaho, J., & Lehtonen, S. (2020). Neurobiological roots of psychopathy. Molecular Psychiatry, 25. 3432-3441. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0488-z.

What is psychopathy? Psychopathy Is. (2023, February 24). Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://psychopathyis.org/what-is-psychopathy/.

 

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The Truth About Psychopathy and Stereotypes!

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Artstract by Olivia Pederson

What is Psychopathy? 

Psychopathy is a personality disorder and is characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and lack of remorse. Psychopathy is also grouped with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) which is characterized by aggression, hostility, callousness, manipulativeness, deceitfulness, and impulsivity. Psychopathy is a severe manifestation of ASPD.

ASPD affects 1-3% of the general population and affects 40-70% of prison populations.

Psychopathy affects 1% of the general population and affects 10-30% of prison populations.

 

How Does it Get Diagnosed?

Psychopathy is not listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) because it is underfunded and under treated. Another reason is that in the past, people who studied psychopathy were worried about the stigmatization that would come with a label such as ‘psychopath’ whereas other clinicians were worried about the ability to asses the traits associated with psychopathy (callousness, cruelty). Psychopathy was replaced with ASPD, which focuses more on the behavioral aspects of psychopathy. Because of this grouping, only about 1/3 of of those diagnosed with ASPD also fit the criteria for psychopathy.

According the the graph above, this type of disorder can be seen in all ages. For younger people, the closest diagnosis is called conduct disorder, which manifests itself as lack of guilt, lack of remorse, callous lack of empathy, lack of concern for oneself, and a general lack of emotional expression.

When diagnosing psychopathy, a questionnaire called the Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCLR). This is a 20 item scale that is scored from interview and file information. This questionnaire tests two different factors:

  1. Factor 1: Emotional Detachment
    • superficial charm, manipulativeness, shallow affect, lack of guilt and lack of empathy
  2. Factor 2: Antisocial Behavior
    • deviance from an early age, aggression, impulsivity, irresponsibility, process to boredom

This questionnaire will lead to a score and then placed on a scale and compared to ‘normal’ ranges.

What Drives Psychopathy? 

Researchers do not know much about the true cause of psychopathy and ASPD. Previous research has shown that there may be some brain abnormalities involved with the symptoms of psychopathy and ASPD. In this research, the amygdala (an important structure for emotional-processing) was smaller in people with the symptoms associated with these disorders.

In other studies, it has showed that there are genes involved with these disorders. Research like this has not really been done before so it is astonishing to make this connection between genes and personality disorders. Genes such as ZNF132 and RPL10P9 were shown to be abnormal in those with ASPD/psychopathy. These genes were unable to make the correct amount of protein for the cells, which lead to insulin activity and glucose metabolism.

Another connection found in this research is the fact that there were changes in the opioid system, which supports prosocial functions (empathy). The opioid system is deficient which contributes to ASPD, which could mean that antisocial individuals attempt to stimulate their opioid system by the rewarding effect they get from impulsive and aggressive behavior.

Stereotypes? 

There are many stereotypes when it comes to the term psychopath. Most of these stereotypes come from media. Most notably, Joe Goldberg from the hit TV show You and Norman Bates from the hit TV show Bates Motel. The TV and movie industry has made a lot of money off of dramatizing people and the term psychopath, but these are not an accurate depiction of what it is like to live with the psychopath label (Norman and Norma Bates on the left and Joe Goldberg below).

Being labeled a psychopath, or a sociopath, or even as someone with ASPD can be debilitating. While there is some forms of treatment to try and help people change their thought patterns and their behaviors, this label will forever be with them. Not everyone with this label is a cold-blooded, evil monster. These people are human beings just like you that don’t get to choose whether their genes code for this major lack of empathy.

So the next time you grab a bowl of popcorn and throw on a mystery/thriller movie with a psychopath killer, try to remember that not everyone labeled a psychopath is going to be a murderer.

 

 

References:

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31455857

apa.org/…or/2022/03/ce-corner-psychopathy

arc.psych.wisc.edu/…/psychopathy-checklist-revised-pclr

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Untangling the Mysteries of Sleep: A Neuroscience Perspective

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Artstract #2

Sleep is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that remains a challenging subject for scientific research. One of the major challenges of studying sleep is that it is a subjective experience, making it difficult to objectively measure and quantify. Another challenge is the variability in individual sleep patterns, making it challenging to generalize findings across different populations. Additionally, sleep is influenced by a variety of factors such as genetics, environmental factors, and lifestyle habits, which makes it challenging to isolate specific variables for study. Furthermore, studying sleep often requires invasive and costly techniques, such as electroencephalography (EEG) and polysomnography (PSG), making it difficult to conduct large-scale studies [1].


Sleep Stages [2]

Sleep stages are categorized into four distinct phases: NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, and REM sleep (Figure 1). NREM 1 is the lightest stage of sleep and is characterized by a reduction in muscle tone. NREM 2 is deeper, while NREM 3 is the deepest stage of sleep. REM sleep is associated with vivid dreams and rapid eye movement. Sleep cycles through these stages several times throughout the night, with REM sleep occurring more frequently towards the morning. Each stage plays a crucial role in the restorative and regenerative functions of sleep, affecting physical and mental health.

Figure 1. Stages of Sleep

cAMP/MAPK/CRE transcriptional pathways [3]

The cAMP/MAPK/CRE transcriptional pathways play a crucial role in the regulation of sleep and memory processes in the brain. These pathways are involved in the activation of gene expression and protein synthesis, which are necessary for the consolidation of long-term memories and the regulation of sleep-wake cycles.

Studies have shown that the activation of the cAMP/MAPK/CRE pathways can promote wakefulness and decrease the amount of sleep, while inhibition of these pathways can increase sleep duration. In addition, these pathways have been implicated in the formation and retrieval of memory, as they are involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity and neuronal connectivity (Figure 2).

Overall, the cAMP/MAPK/CRE pathways provide a molecular framework for the regulation of sleep and memory processes in the brain, and understanding their mechanisms may lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches for sleep and memory-related disorders.

Figure 2. It is suggested that upstream cAMP stimulation of Ras and/or Rap1 in conjunction with PKA suppression of STEP phosphatase causes MAPK activation during exercise. The eventual reduction in pMAPK could be brought on by STEP’s calcineurin reactivation. It is proposed that the CaM-stimulated adenylyl cyclases are necessary for the durability of hippocampus-dependent memory, and that memory is preserved by a diurnal oscillation of this route in the hippocampus. It is believed that the cAMP/MAPK/CREB transcriptional pathway reaches its peak activity in REM sleep, specifically during the light phase of the circadian cycle.


Environmental Factors [4]

Sleep is significantly influenced by various environmental factors, including light exposure, temperature, noise, and air quality. Exposure to bright light in the morning can promote wakefulness and reset the circadian rhythm, while exposure to light at night can disrupt sleep and suppress the production of melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Temperature also plays a crucial role in sleep, as a cool environment can promote sleep onset and quality, while a warm environment can interfere with sleep (Figure 3). Noise and air quality can also disrupt sleep by causing arousal and respiratory disturbances.

Other environmental factors, such as stress, physical activity, and diet, can also affect sleep. Understanding and managing these environmental factors is crucial for promoting healthy sleep and preventing sleep-related disorders.

Figure 3. Duration of sleep and GDP of countries across different climate zones (temperature, air quality, noice) and resources


Sleep-Related Disorders [5]

Sleep-related disorders are a group of conditions that affect the quality, timing, and duration of sleep. These disorders can range from mild to severe and can significantly impact overall health, quality of life, and daily functioning.

Some of the most common sleep-related disorders include insomnia, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and narcolepsy. Insomnia is characterized by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, while sleep apnea is marked by interrupted breathing during sleep. Restless leg syndrome is characterized by an irresistible urge to move the legs during rest, while narcolepsy is a neurological disorder that causes excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.

Effective diagnosis and treatment of sleep-related disorders can significantly improve sleep quality, reduce daytime fatigue, and enhance overall health and well-being.

Conclusion

Sleep is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that remains a challenging subject for scientific research. Sleep is influenced by a variety of factors such as genetics, environmental factors, and lifestyle habits, which makes it challenging to isolate specific variables for study. Therefore, some individuals are more fortunate to have better quality sleep than others based on their living resources and location.

Resources

[1] How sleep works: Understanding the science of sleep. Sleep Foundation. (2022, October 19). Retrieved March 29, 2023, from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works

[2] Stages of sleep: What happens in a sleep cycle. Sleep Foundation. (2023, March 2). Retrieved March 29, 2023, from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/stages-of-sleep

[3] Xia, Z., & Storm, D. (2017). Role of circadian rhythm and REM sleep for memory consolidation. Neuroscience Research, 118, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2017.04.011

[4] Environmental sleep factors |. | World Sleep Day March 17, 2023. (2015, September 16). Retrieved March 29, 2023, from https://worldsleepday.org/environmental-sleep-factors

[5] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, December 14). Key sleep disorders – sleep and sleep disorders. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved March 29, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/sleep/about_sleep/key_disorders.html

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Can You Learn In Your Sleep?

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What really is sleep?

We all know what sleep is and what it looks like, but what goes on in the brain during sleep? You may have heard that it’s good for you; that it helps heal your brain. But how does it do this? What are dreams? You may have also heard that sleeping helps improve you memory, how does that work?

Phases

Sleeping is a repetitive cycle of varying brain activity. In a typical night the average person will go through 4-6 of these cycles.

  • Stage 1: NREM (non-rapid eye movement) 1, this stage typically lasts 1-7 minutes and is really just the beginning of when you fall asleep. The body is not fully relaxed, but brain and body activities start to decrease.
  • Stage2: NREM2, this typically lasts 10-25 minutes during the first cycle. The body drop sin temperature, and breathing and heart rate will slow down. Brain activity also starts to decrease.
  • Stage 3: NREM3, this is known as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep. Muscle tone, breathing, and heart rate decrease greatly in this stage. Brain activity takes on large, and ‘slow-moving’ waves known as delta waves.
  • Stage 4: REM (rapid eye movement). Brain activity during this stage mimics activity while awake, and muscle paralysis will set in. Even though the eyes remain closed they are moving quickly

REM Sleep

Schematic depicting the physiological changes that occur during REM sleep

REM sleep is often regarded as the stage where a lot of the benefits of sleep occur. EEG analysis shows that memory consolidation pathways are activated during REM sleep. The more you learn throughout the day increased the amount of REM sleep during that night, indicating that REM sleep is important for learning and memory formation. You can read more about sleep cycles and REM here.

Pull an All-Nighter or Sleep?

Image showing memory formation corresponding to daylight cycles. Notice how consolidation aligns with night and sleep.

Given the research showing that REM sleep can help consolidate memories, is it better to spend more time studying? Or is it better to study what you need then sleep on it? A lot of benefit can come from sleeping rather that studying all night long.

 

References

  1. Stages of sleep: What happens in a sleep cycle. Sleep Foundation. (2023, March 2). Retrieved March 29, 2023

  2. ScienceDaily. (2020, June 5). Memory consolidation during REM sleep. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 29, 2023

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Sleeping May Replace Studying — Every College Students Dream Come True (Literally)

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Since elementary school, I recall being told to get a “good night’s sleep” before tests – I, along with many other kids, did not take this seriously. In college, I finally discovered the importance of sleep, especially in organic chemistry when every night I was dreaming about SN2 and Grignard reaction mechanisms, waking up to a greater understanding and solidification of these concepts. Too often, I hear my fellow students talking about studying all night before exams as if it is going to help them – it does not! It is actually detrimental to their exam performance. Studies have found that fewer than 10% of college students sleep the recommended 7-8 hours at night during finals. How detrimental is this really? What does the lack of sleep really do? It has been shown that sleep, particularly REM sleep, is crucial for memory consolidation and long term memory formation. 

Sleep

The sleep cycle is broken into NREM (non-rapid eye movement) and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. NREM sleep consists of three stages in which the body repairs tissues and strengthens the immune system. REM sleep happens about 90 minutes after falling asleep and is important in the stimulation of the regions of the brain important for learning and protein production. REM sleep brain activity waves are comparable to waves seen during wakefulness and alertness. The stages of NREM and REM sleep are depicted below. 

Hormones and Clock Proteins

Melatonin and cortisol are the primary circadian hormones and they are both produced in the pineal gland and released according to lightness or darkness. The retina at the back of the eye has photoreceptors called rods and cones that respond to light and darkness, and they have signaling attachments to the optic nerve which connects to the pineal gland. With darkness, melatonin is released and from the morning light, cortisol is released to wake us up. Melatonin increases the expression of the clock protein, PER1. This protein is of the period gene which encodes circadian rhythms of locomotion, metabolism, and behavior. Since melatonin increases this expression, it is concluded that PER1 plays the largest role in our decreased locomotion and metabolic rate in our sleep. 

Memory Consolidation and Sleep

It has long been proposed that memories are consolidated in our sleep by, for example, dreaming of our awake experiences (like organic chemistry). However, the biological reasoning was lacking – until now! It has been found that the cAMP/MAPK/CRE-mediated transcription pathway, a key memory consolidation pathway, reaches a maximum during REM sleep. In individuals with dysfunction of this pathway, perhaps a sleep deprived individual, long term memory formation is blocked. In order for memories to be consolidated, there must be repeated reactivation of these signals to maintain required protein levels for persistence of these memories. This repetition actually occurs in our sleep! The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the “circadian pacemaker” of the brain, and it also controls the oscillation of cAMP, MAPK, and CREB levels. It has been found that this oscillation reaches maximum activity of these pathways during REM sleep! 

In summary, during REM sleep a crucial memory consolidation and neuroplasticity pathway is at its highest activity, consolidating awake moments into long term memories. So, sleep the night before exams! If you study during the day, these concepts will replay during REM sleep and turn into a long term memory, maybe even making more sense when you wake up!

References

  1. Ryan, T. (2022). A Study Guide To Getting Sleep During Final Exams. Sleep Foundation. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/school-and-sleep/final-exams-and-sleep#:~:text=If%20school%20and%20sleep%20don,Fewer%20than%2010%25 
  2. What are REM and Non-REM Sleep? WebMD. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/sleep-101
  3. Anderson, L. (2019). Melatonin and Cortisol. Thriven Functional Medicine Clinic. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from https://thrivenfunctionalmedicine.com/melatonin-and-cortisol/#:~:text=Melatonin%20works%20to%20keep%20circadian,which%20is%20our%20awake%20hormone.
  4. PER1 Gene – Gene Cards. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=PER1
  5. Xia, Z.; Storm, D. (2017). Role of circadian Rhythm and REM sleep for memory consolidation. Neuroscience Research 118, 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2017.04.011
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Emotional Memories and Sleep

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https://inkshed.web.unc.edu/2020/07/just-sleep-on-it/

Sleep, is potentially one of the most important things in our lives. According to John Hopkins’ website we spend around a quarter to a third of our life sleeping. If you’re a person like me, who wishes there was more hours in the day. It seems like a lot of time wasted or that could be used else where. With 8 hours being the recommendation obviously it must be important that we do get proper sleep. Yet, what is really happening during this time that makes it more valuable than staying up?

Sleep plays a role in neural plasticity, rest of the body, circadian rhythm, memory, and so much more.  I like to think the sleep is like writing a summary of your day but in your brain. It is the time where everything is devoted to recapping, resetting, and segmenting for a new day. Of the many factors can disrupt sleep. Things like physical comfort, uneasiness, diet etc. can all disrupt sleep. Emotional memory and emotional state can alter sleep and can be altered by sleep.

What is emotional memory?

Emotional memory is our ability to consciously remember our experiences. Every emotional event that happens to us needs to be encoded into our memory during our sleep. In a 2011 article on Emotional memory processing talked about an “affective tone” theory. That each night our brain needs time to process the “tone” of how this event occurred. Meaning our brain tries to make sense of the event. If it was negative, positive, what did we learn from it. The more complex it is to understand the longer it takes our brain to break it down and store it properly. It can take multiple nights, but once our brain concludes the core memory is finally stored. This also leads to the reasoning why major events get stored in long term memory or short.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4182440/

How does sleep effect our memories?

A study tested the storing and recall of positive negative and neutral memories, or in the study they used pictures instead of memories. They found that positive images had a better recall compared to negative. They also had participants go through a fMRI which showed that when thinking of the positive memories they were stored during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. The negative images were stored in SWS (slow wave sleep). During REM sleep the brain moves memories from short term to long term memory. The adrenergic system in the brain is used during SWS as the brain leaves REM sleep. Memories that are more stimulating are easier to recall. These memories also make the adrenergic system to work more.

https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/25/6/1565/300470?login=false

Why is sleep important?

Lack of sleep, or sleep deprivation lowers the function of temporal memory. Temporal memory is often referred to as out short-term memory. If the structures responsible for short term memory storage is thrown off due to lack of sleep. It can cause a change in the normal cascade of all memory storage. If memories aren’t stored in the short term. How can they be properly stored in our long-term memory. Lack of sleep can also throw off each night’s sleep cycle through the different stages of sleep. This means since different brain functions during sleep are dependent on each sleep cycle. Lack of sleep doesn’t allow to brain to decompress how it properly needs to.

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Environmental Impact on Memory Consolidation during Sleep

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What is memory consolidation?

In the most simplest terms, memory consolidation is the process of converting a short term memory into a more stable, long-term memory. Memory formation typically occurs in three different stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is the sensory inputs that have to be transformed into storable memory inputs. Storage then is how that encoded information is then transferred to the sense organs and retained. Finally, retrieval is how one can get access to the actual memory stores in the brain when wanting to recover information. The biology of how conscious memory is stored is that it is dependent on storage in the hippocampus and neocortex. The information is first stored in the hippocampus, known for its fast-learning system. Next, it is trained in the slow learning system of the neocortex. Memory consolidation is strengthened through this process by potentiation-a process requiring conduction of information from neuron to neuron to create a strong synaptic workforce. The more signals that pass through the synapse from one to neuron to the next, the more potentiation is built.

This is the simplest diagram of how memory consolidation works. Consolidation is the transfer of memory from short term to long term, which can be strengthened through rehearsal. (1)

However, how does sleep play a role in this potentiation? REM sleep. That is the key stage of sleep that seems to have the greatest impact in strengthening potentiation. REM sleep is known as active sleep, which elicits neuronal activity in the brain through neuronal plasticity. The promotion of neuronal activity during REM sleep can therefore help consolidate memories and information a person stored during the day.1

An illustration of how memory from the day is consolidated during sleep for best retrieval the next day. (4)

Environmental Impacts

Proper REM sleep is vital in making short term memories more long term. The network of information that the active neurons build during REM sleep can impact overall memory. One issue greatly disturbing this sleep is the environment that people live in. Those living in poverty or a dangerous neighborhood with high crime rates may experience more difficulties getting proper sleep in all stages of the cycle. Imagine living in a neighborhood with gangs venturing outside your door. Imagine living by train tracks with a train that speeds by every night. Perhaps you live in a city that never sleeps. These interruptions can disrupt a person’s sleep cycle, having negative implications on the ability of their neurons to strengthen that synaptic plasticity during REM sleep. A sleep environment should be a dark, cool, and quiet place; this is not necessarily easy for most of the population to check off before going to bed.2 There are over 648 million people in the world that live in extreme poverty, and even more that live in poor conditions comparable to that.3 That is a lot of people likely not getting the proper sleep due to their living conditions being in poor environments. Even cities with poorly insulated apartments can result in noises from neighbors that can disrupt sleep. The number of environmental reasons for sleep disruption is unbelievable.

Conclusion

Sleep is so important in the development of synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation through potentiation. While of course awake repetition of the learned information to transition the short term memory into a long one is important as well, sleep is a push towards really solidifying that memory without actively studying. In a sense, it almost feels like magic in how the mind works to build stronger neuron connections while we peacefully sleep. Of course, peaceful sleep is not a privilege everyone has and is a difficult issue to solve because of all the different factors contributing to the disruption.

 

Citations:

  1. Memory consolidation. (2020, August 28). Ian. https://human-memory.net/memory-consolidation/#Basics_of_Memory_Consolidation
  2. Creating a good sleep environment. (2021, June 29). CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emres/longhourstraining/environment.html
  3. Schoch, M., Baah, S. K. T., Lakner, C., & Friedman, J. (n.d.). Half of the global population lives on less than US$6.85 per person per day. World Bank Blogs. Retrieved March 28, 2023, from https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/half-global-population-lives-less-us685-person-day
  4. Feld, G. B., & Diekelmann, S. (2020). Building the Bridge: Outlining steps toward an applied sleep-and-memory research program. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(6), 554–562. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420964171

 

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