According to the American Diabetes Association, in the United States, about 8.3% of the total population has some form of diabetes. That means about 25.8 million Americans are diagnosed with this metabolic disorder. As I have gotten older, the number of Americans in the U.S. has been increasing at an alarming rate. In 1991 about 6.9 million Americans were diagnosed diabetics. That number has nearly quadrupled in size from 1991 to now. This alone is very alarming, but if you also take into account the cost of controlling diabetes, the health complications, and now the increasing rate of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), it appears that this epidemic must be addressed more in our society.
There are three different types of diabetes: type I, type II, and gestational. The most prevalent is type II diabetes, and occurs when the body is unable to produce enough insulin, or the cells in the body begin to resist the insulin the body produces.
A lot of research has been looking at any correlation between type II diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease, and the research has been proving to show that there may indeed be a relationship. Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease where things called amyloid beta plaques and tau tangles build up in the brain, causing neurons to die and leading to impaired memory and cognitive dysfunction. Due to the decrease in insulin within the brain, or the increase in insulin resistance, insulin is unable to properly carry out its functions. This can lead to Tau hyperphosphorylation and neurofibrillary tangles along with amyloid beta plaque formation, all of which are the cause of AD.
Above is a figure showing how both type 1 and type II diabetes can lead to Alzheimer’s disease. Note how not just type II can be a risk to AD.
What is so unfortunate about this relationship between AD and Type II diabetes is that with the increasing numbers of diabetes in the United States, there will also be an enormous increase in AD, especially in the future. The chances of someone getting AD increases as we get older, and if one also has type II diabetes, the chances of having AD becomes a scary number. So then, the next question is how do we help prevent AD, or even diabetes to occur? Insulin may be the answer. Insulin injections are great regulators for people with diabetes, and are already being used as treatment. However, this only stops the symptoms, and is not a cure.
So what are the true keys to helping battle diabetes, preventing diabetes, and lowering the chances of getting AD? They are exercise, a healthy diet, and education. We’ve been hearing it since elementary school, and many of us still don’t recognize these three important things. Exercise not only helps with blood sugar, but also is healthy for our whole body. A healthy diet seems like a difficult option in today’s society, and I agree, but it’s definitely doable. Finally, being educated on how to keep your body healthy and learning more about what we eat can go a long way in helping how we shop at the grocery store. It seems like a hard task that may empty out the pocket, and I won’t deny that that may be a possibility. But one must weigh the risks, and I believe that living a healthy lifestyle will definitely be worth every penny.
Marijuana???
Should smoking marijuana be legal? Should using marijuana for medicinal purposes be legal? These are some hard-hitting questions that, in today’s society, are difficult to ignore. Some of the topics in our science classes can seem a little dry and boring to the general public, but it’s hard not to have an opinion on this week’s subject.
The article we looked at this week, “Endogenous cannabinoids revisited: A biochemistry perspective” looked into the chemistry of what is really happening when marijuana enters our system. Specifically, what happens in our brain and what implications this may have for medicinal purposes.
Marijuana has long history of being seen as a terrible and useless drug that makes people lazy and hungry. Not many people have a clue, (or want to admit they have a clue) that marijuana can be used for medicinal purposes. Could smoking weed really help people? In our society today, it seems like a crazy thought. But it’s true, and there is science to back it up!
A little science for ya:
The active ingredient in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol or THC. Humans produce endocannabinoids which act similar to THC, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glyceride (2-AG). AEA and 2-AG bind to cannabinoid receptors, and THC mimics these actions and also binds to cannabinoid receptors. By binding to these receptors, THC causes adverse effects on the mind and body.
Many people smoke marijuana recreationally due to it’s psychological and physiological effects, making users feel relaxed and mellowed, bringing a sense of joy and entertainment to many. Of course it is important to note that marijuana can also have negative effects, such as problems with memory and learning, distorted perception, difficulty with thinking and problem solving, and loss of coordination. In spite of these side effects, scientists are looking into potential benefits to using marijuana for medicinal uses. Marijuana has been known to suppress nausea, relieve eye pressure, decrease muscle spasms, stimulate appetite, stop convulsions and eliminate menstrual pain. Medical marijuana has been seen to be helpful in many disorders such as alcohol abuse, asthma, bipolar disorder, depression, epilepsy, Huntington’s disease, leukemia, sleep apnea, anorexia nervosa, etc. The list really goes on and on. The fact that marijuana can be beneficial is really undeniable. The situation becomes difficult simply because of so many users that use for recreational purposes, and also the stigma behind the drug. Many patients who are in need of help, put off trying medical marijuana simply because of how it is seen in the public eye. If medical marijuana were to be made legal it would take time for the public view to change.
As of right now there is and will continue to be much controversy over legalizing marijuana. Due to its past and stigma, many people will continue to stand against the legalization of marijuana. There are many reasons why I believe that legalizing marijuana would not be such a bad thing, and this article only enforced those thoughts. The science behind it is fairly clear; there are not many, if no major or long term negative effects. In comparison to substances such as tobacco and alcohol, this simply confuses me. According to the World Health Organization, alcohol kills 2.5 million people per year. The information for cannabis provided by the World Health Organization does not even mention death. This statistic alone, speaks volumes. I am not saying that all marijuana should be legal, but I believe that both recreational and medical purposes for marijuana should continue to be looked at closely.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/marijuana3.htm
http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/alcohol/en/
Why not Take a Dose of Lithium Everyday?
Lithium. A tiny soft silver-white metal that is the lightest of the alkali metals. For years this small metal has been used to treat bipolar disorder as well as manic depressive episodes. During our neurochemistry class this week we discussed an article called “Molecular actions and therapeutic potential of lithium in preclinical and clinical studies of CNS disorders”. We essentially looked at all of the disorders and diseases within the brain that could potentially be treated with the use of lithium. These disorders include: bipolar disorder, autism, stroke, Huntington’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, retinal degeneration, Fragile X syndrome, multiple sclerosis, prion disease, HIV, as well as many others. While discussing these, lithium was always used as something that was administered to a specific target in order to stop the dysfunction of certain pathways. By doing this it would usually (at least in rat models) cause either the disease to diminish or at least aid in treating the symptoms. To help explain better how lithium effects different pathways look at the figure below. All of the lines with a flat end on them are where something has been inhibited and all of the arrows show where things have been facilitated. This diagram shows essentially how lithium can inhibit apoptosis using the RTK, Wnt, and NMDA pathways within the brain (inhibition of apoptosis is a good thing!).
While lithium can help treat many disorders in the brain, it is not something we would want to be taking daily to make ourselves healthier. The way lithium works is that it helps regulate the mechanisms in the brain that are already “out of wack” because of a brain disease, which is why it is so helpful in many cases. If a healthy person were to take lithium doses however, it could cause massive and unnecessary pathway malfunctions within the CNS. This metal has recently been used in rat models and not as much in humans yet. Scientists are trying to see what is safe and what will work before trying these treatments in humans. Targeting places in the brain is probably one of the biggest setbacks for using lithium as a treatment for human diseases. Once these targets have been located and tested then hopefully lithium will be used as a treatment for many of these disorders in the future.
"He's fine! Just bumped his head!"
When you hit your head, it hurts a lot, and you are probably a bit dazed. When a 200 lb linebacker smashes against your head, it is probably going to do a little more than hurt. One of the biggest issues in professional sports today is concussions. More often we are hearing about athletes who are forced to sit out for concussions. But come on, he just has a headache right? He can totally play through that. Well in the article we read recently about the pathophysiology of concussive brain injuries, we learned that concussions are actually pretty serious. First, concussions are often referred to as mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI). Now it may just be me but I don’t think any traumatic brain injury is mild. What basically happens with a concussion is that when you get hit hard enough, the membranes of your neurons become “leaky”. This means ions like sodium and potassium start to leak out of your cells and your neurons begin to fire. In order to counteract all this, Na/K pumps in your neurons being working overtime to try and get your system back in balance. This requires a large amount of ATP or energy to work. This also leads to swelling of the brain. So basically, your brain takes a hit, begins firing random signals, and has to work overtime to balance it all out. All this leads to the symptoms associated with a concussion: memory loss, confusion, headache, trouble concentrating, etc. The thing about this kind of injury to the brain is, the only thing you can do about it is rest. It takes time to balance out and repair this damage. Besides just sending out a person with a out-of-whack brain back into a game, the big danger of concussion is second impact syndrome. Basically, if you take another hit of enough force too soon after a concussion, you run a major risk of causing a cerebral edema, major brain damage, or death. So maybe we should be keeping athletes off the field after concussions. But this isn’t exactly easy. Imagine if Aaron Rodgers or Adrian Peterson were to take a big hit in the playoffs. Without either of them, their teams would be in big trouble, not to mention would lose a lot of money. Do you let them play? Was the hit that bad? It’s not completely black and white. It is even worse for student athletes. Athletes in college or high school aren’t getting paid to put their bodies on the line, they do it for the love of the sport. But at the end of the day, they have to go back to school. Going to school with a concussion is basically impossible, you just wont be able to pay attention and comprehend what you are learning. This is especially difficult in college where classes are much more difficult and move much faster. But what do we do? One concussion and you are done? That won’t fly with a lot of teams. It isn’t an easy problem to solve. I may not have the answer but I do know that concussions cannot be taken lightly. An injury to your brain requires a lot of time to heal. Athletes are varying levels have their own motivation to keep playing but at some point we have to ask, when is it time to say enough?
Get Your Head in the Game: Sports and Concussions
When encountering a concussion many people look at it as not a huge deal saying things like “don’t worry I can still play”, “they just need a little rest and they will be fine”, “look they are walking they can still play”, and “it is not truly serious until they pass out”. I believe people have a large misunderstanding about how concussions effect peoples brain functions in both the short term and the long term. There can be many consequences when taking repeated blows to the head and because of this rules and regulations regarding concussions in sports have been a controversial topic for many years now.
As research shows a single hit to the head can cause serious damage. Take that one hit and multiply it by 10 or 20 and you can have serious brain injury, possible cognitive deficits, and long term health problems. This is what people do for the sports they play whether it be on a professional level or as a child. As a participant in the sport they may not fully be aware of the consequences of repeated concussions.
In class this week we discussed an article called “The Molecular Pathophysiology of Concussive Brain Injury”. This article not only took us through the effects of a concussion within the brain on a molecular level but also led us to discuss the rules and regulations in contact sports, the different places one can get hit, and the steps to take in treating a concussion.
Not many people think about what happens in the brain as a result of a hit to the head. Take a look at the image below and you will have an idea of what is happening in your brain when you take a blow to the head.
http://users.rowan.edu/~cateri02/Concussion.Assessment.html
One of the most concerning things about concussions these days, is how they are being treated (and/or ignored). We discussed in class how people in the NFL do have professionals to assess the players after they take a hard hit, however it can be debated that the people who are in charge of this are sending the players back out before they are ready simply because coaches want them to play, the game depends on that player, they think they will be fine if they finish out the game, it is a sport that millions of fans watch so sending the player out to finish the game won’t be a big deal, and on and on with the excuses. Regardless of the level of the sport everyone should follow the basic procedures following a concussion before getting back into the game. Yes it does vary from player to player depending on history, health, the hit, etc. but it does not change the fact that they should follow the proper protocol for the sake of their long term health. These are the procedures that are recommended after receiving a hit to the head in any sport:
http://www.irbplayerwelfare.com/?documentid=3
As you can see in the diagram, there are six levels a person should go through before returning to their sport. The key is to start off small and not make the brain injury any worse. Giving your brain time to heal itself is the best thing you can do to ensure that you will fully recover and have proper brain functioning later in life. Many professional athletes have been found to have mental illnesses, cognitive deficits, depression, anxiety, etc. as a result of playing their sport with out thinking about the consequences of injury. I think many people should be more informed about sports injuries to the brain and learn to use the proper procedures to heal after an injury and learn not to take a blow to the head lightly.
As if you needed another reason to eat healthy
So pretty much everyone has heard of Type-II diabetes and its connection to obesity. The hallmark of Type-II diabetes is insulin resistance. Basically your body is making so much insulin in response to the glucose in your body that you build up a resistance to it. Well recent studies have now begun to show a connection between insulin and Alzheimer’s. Now normally when people thing about insulin you think about what it does in the blood, but insulin is very important for signaling in the brain. Insulin and IGF-1 (Insulin-like Growth Factor) are important in brain energy homeostasis, neuronal survival, and learning/memory. With less insulin in the brain, more neurons die and you see the memory loss associated with Alzheimers. One of the ways this happens has to do with Tau-proteins. Tau proteins are basically structural proteins that help support your neurons. When these proteins are phosphorylated, they begin to unfold. Insulin normally down-regulates their phosphorylation. With reduced insulin in your brain, the Tau proteins become hyperphosphorylated and begin to form tangles, killing neurons.
This picture shows what I was mentioning with Tau-proteins. You can see what happens to the neurons and how the tangles lead to neuron death.
The implications of these findings are scary. As if we needed another reason to eat healthy, developing Type-II diabetes might lead to Alzheimer’s as well. With obesity on the rise in America, this is just another thing to worry about.
"I got a fever, and the only prescription is more lithium"
Seriously though, besides being a Nirvana song that brings you back to your grungier days, lithium seems to play a crucial role in treating a variety of different disorders of the central nervous system. Oddly enough, lithium extends its hand into a majority of the major pathways that regulate a healthy central nervous system. Lithium is currently the most popular treatment for bipolar disorder. Lithium targets microRNAs that effect neuron outgrowth, neurogenesis, and signaling of ERK and Wnt pathways, both of which play crucial roles in maintaining a balanced nervous system. Lithium can also be used for treatment of Huntington’s, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease, and other CNS related disorders.
So if lithium is so important, why aren’t we taking it on the daily? Is this some sort of miracle drug? Lithium has many neuroprotective properties and is crucial for a healthy nervous system. So should we be taking lithium with our other vitamins every day? The intriguing thing about lithium is that since it is involved in so many different pathways, regulating one pathway will have sometimes harmful effects on the other pathways. But nonetheless, you are able to buy lithium supplements over the counter. There are relatively few side effects, and most of them are decently minor in the grand scheme of things. They include excess thirst, increased urination (go figure), upset stomach, and other minor side effects.
I’m not saying that we should just go ahead and start downing lithium by the bottle, but it’s definitely an supplement that we should be aware of. It’s crucial to many different pathways throughout the central nervous system. It has its side effects, but some might be bearable and even worth it the supplement really helps. Furthermore, many of the side effects experienced with lithium use disappear upon increased usage. I had no idea that lithium played so many important roles in maintaining our health, but it’s for sure something I want to be aware of.
Obesity: Is it a choice or a brain disorder?
Obesity is a growing epidemic in the United States along with other parts of the world. The concern of people not being able to eat because food cost too much or because it was not excisable to people has changed the way food is made. The food industry has made foods that are cheap and very easy to get to, insuring that more people would be able to eat. However, out of these good intentions these foods are extremely unhealthy and worse addicting. Food companies knew that these foods are unhealthy so to make sure people continued to buy the foods they play around with the chemistry. They change it to the point that the food becomes drug like and once you have it the buyer wants more so the next times they see the food it triggers those feels of pleasure which makes them want to buy it. However, this cycle doesn’t end there.
Studies show that overweight parents with a disposition to eating unhealthy food change their brain biological make up. The number of disorders and diseases that occur from eating food causes heart problems, liver problems and even brain problems. The really concerning thing is that if unhealthy people have a child, that child is more likely to suffer the same problems. These problems don’t just come from eating unhealthy foods that are found in the house. They also come from a genetic predisposition to eat high fat foods passed on by the parents. Because at a young age, new born babies rapid brain development can be altered even after birth. One study showed that mice born from health parents that were raised by an unhealthy mouse have a high disposition to unhealthy foods. Their findings claim that the high fat milk form the replacement mouse genetically changes the babies want for high fat foods. But knowing this occurs in some people, does the concern arise that people will just use this as an excuse to eat whatever and blame it on a lack of willpower? Obesity can be a slippery slope because once a person goes down that path it can quickly escalade out of control.
Lithium Toxicology
Lithium is a soft metal, it is the smallest metal found on column one, row two of the periodic table. Due to its small size and plus one charge lithium is useful in the biological system. To date the uses of lithium mostly revolve around bipolar disease among other mental disorders. However, this treatment has been used for quite some time; the exact mechanism to how it works is still unknown. The main target area of lithium is the apoptotic (cell death) part of the brain. Disorders like bipolar contribute to over apoptotic which is stopped by the drugs containing lithium. Is lithium good for people to be taking?
Lithium over dosing is a more common occurrence then one might think. There are two forms of OD; the acute and the chronic. Acute OD is the taking of too much lithium in one event. This can present itself in a number of symptoms like diarrhea, stomach pains, weakness, coma, hand tremors, ataxia, seizures, etc… Chronic OD is the taking of too much lithium on a daily bases. This is a more common occurrence than acute OD because this usually means the person was unknowingly prescribed too much by their doctor. This can result in serious symptoms like kidney failure, memory problems, movement problems, psychosis, etc… Not knowing the how much lithium can cause an OD the question becomes; is it ethical to continue prescribing it to people given the symptoms?
My Brain Made Me Do It…Obesity As a Brain Disease?
America has a growing problem with obesity that raises concerns about the future health of the nation. Additional, the incidence of childhood obesity is steadily increasing as well, which puts youth at an increased risk for a number of conditions later in life including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, bone and joint problems, sleep apnea, and psychological problems. The cause of obesity appears to be simple: overnutrition. People are consuming more calories than they are burning off, which causes them to gain weight as body fat. But is the cause really that simple? The article, “Is obesity a brain disease” argues that obesity is caused by overnutrition but the brain may be responsible for releasing signals that propagate the biological trap of obesity.
Often, overeating and obesity is seen as an issue of lack of willpower. People are told to choose to eat less and choose healthier food options. However, scientists have found that early exposure to high-fat and high-sugar diets increases the likelihood that a person will prefer that type of diet as an adult. Even pre-natal exposure via the mother’s diet during gestation may impact the feeding behavior of an individual later in life. Preferences for high fat and sugar diets have long lasting effects for individuals. For example, glucose sensing and use of insulin is impaired in individuals that are chronically exposed to overnutrition. Dysregulation of glucose metabolism plays a role in the development of type 2 diabetes. Studies using fMRI, an imaging technique to study functionality, have found there are differences between the activity in obese brains versus normal brains. Obese brains became more activated by food stimuli and more rewarding signals were sent in the brain in response to food. What causes the differences in desires for food and activity in the brain? There are two neuron types in the brain that control appetite. POMC neurons increase appetite, and these are the neurons that are overactivated in obese individuals. On the other hand, NPY/AGRP neurons have the opposite effect of decreasing appetite and are less active in obese people than average weight individuals.
Based on these facts, things are looking pretty grim because the brain is contributing to a person’s likelihood to overeat to form a biological trap. Is there any chance to break this vicious cycle? Our class investigated several ways to treat obesity as a brain disease and break the cycle. First it has been shown that eating healthy foods decreases appetite by increasing hormone signals to the brain. Another healthy lifestyle choice includes maintaining a regular sleep schedule. Regular sleep prevents decrease in metabolic rate, increases glucose levels and changes in insulin response. POMC neurons are a potential target for pharmacological intervention. By decreasing activation of POMC neurons, appetite would be suppressed in obese people. The differences in the brain can be changed to an extent by losing weight and maintaining a normal BMI. Scientists have found that there is a difference in brain activity between individuals that successful dieted and individuals that are still obese. However, not all of the differences in the brain caused by obesity can be reversed in all cases. Ultimately, our society needs to understand the consequences of eating fast food, constantly being on-the-go, and exposing kids to unhealthy food from a young age. Education will be another important tool in breaking the cycle for future generations.