Cobbers on the Brain

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes the brain to shrink and brain cells to die. It is characterized by memory loss and decline in social skills and behaviors. Cognitive decline is gradual, so in the early years of AD, people may forget recent events or little details, but it can lead to declines in memory where people cannot do everyday tasks on their own. Around 6.5 million people living in the United States suffer from AD and it is projected to impact much greater numbers in the future. [1]

What is happening in the brain?

The exact cause of AD is not fully understood by scientists, but researchers have found two hallmarks of AD in the brain. One being beta-amyloid plaques which are clumps of fragments from proteins that block communication between cells in the brain. The other is neurofibrillary tangles made by tau proteins which also disrupt communication between cells but also cause damage to cells in the brain. [1]

[2]

Insulin resistance and Alzheimer’s disease

Insulin signaling is important for regular neurological functioning; insulin improves things like memory and other cognitive functions. Insulin resistance refers to the brain’s decreased sensitivity to sensing insulin resulting in defects in insulin signaling. This could lead to an increase in neuroinflammation and oxidative stress which eventually lead to neurodegeneration. Insulin resistance and reduced insulin signaling is believed to cause the formation of the beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles that are believed to be the root cause of AD. [3]

How can diet prevent Alzheimer’s disease?

Eating healthy foods can prevent neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, which are risk factors for AD. A healthy diet can increase nutrient intake which can increase anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity in the brain, protecting the brain against neurodegeneration. A healthy diet can also decrease the risk of developing diabetes, obesity, and heart disease which are found to be risk factors for developing AD. [4]

Mediterranean and MIND diets

The Mediterranean diet emphasizes the consumption of plant-based foods and healthy fats. Fruits and vegetables are essential to this diet as well as whole grains, fish, and unsaturated fats. The Mediterranean diet consists of low levels of red meats and sugars. The MIND diet is a spin on the Mediterranean diet with the DASH diet (diet to help treat and prevent hypertension). It has been found through studies that treating high blood pressure has positive effects in reducing the risk of dementia. The MIND diet is very similar to the Mediterranean diet but greatly emphasizes the intake of vegetables and fruits, but especially leafy greens and berries. Fish and whole grains are essential parts of the MIND diet as well as limiting the intake of red meat, cheeses, sugars, and fried foods. Studies on the MIND diet in relation to dementia and AD have shown that people who reported sticking to the MIND diet or the Mediterranean diet showed less evidence of beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, and they found that it reduced the risk of developing AD by 53%. [5]

[6]

What does this mean?

Specific diets could have a positive effect on retaining cognitive function and preventing the development of AD, but more research and evidence needs to be conducted to prove this for sure. What we do know is that having a healthy lifestyle which includes eating a healthy diet has been proven to prevent cognitive decline which could be related to the prevention of AD.

References

[1] Mayo Clinic. (2024, February 13). Alzheimer’s disease. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alzheimers-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20350447. 

[2] Alzheimer’s Disease Research. (2015, July 1). Amyloid Plaques and Neurofibrillary Tangles. BrightFocus Foundation. https://www.brightfocus.org/news/amyloid-plaques-and-neurofibrillary-tangles.

[3] Akhtar, A. & Sah, S. P. (2020). Insulin signaling pathway and related molecules: Role in neurodegeneration and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurochemistry International, 135, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2020.104707. 

[4] Stefaniak, O., Dobrzyńska, M., Drzymała-Czyż, S., & Przysławski, J. (2022). Diet in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease: Current knowledge and future research requirements. Nutrients, 14(21), 4564. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9656789/. 

[5] NIA. (2023, November 20). What Do We Know About Diet and Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease? National Institute on Aging. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-and-dementia/what-do-we-know-about-diet-and-prevention-alzheimers-disease. 

[6] Fiorianti, K. (2023, February 27). The MIND Diet for Parkinson’s. Peterson Foundation for Parkinson’s. https://petersonforparkinsons.org/the-mind-diet-for-parkinsons/. 

It’s been a tough four years having to learn and make friends during a pandemic. We had one normal semester of our freshman year before being sent home and spending the next two years remote and masked. It’s hard to make new friends and connect with people behind a mask while being distanced. Our senior year was finally our first full normal year and despite the senior slide kicking in, it was worth the wait.

Despite having to take Pchem and neurochem senior year many good things came out of it, such as the group chat “What in the H hat”. I am not going to lie neurochem is not what I expected it to be, and it was hard to connect to the class content. But getting to spend every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday with the neurochem girls was worth it. I expected neurochem to be more lectured based and how chemistry occurs in the brain. However, it ended up being discussion based and how signaling pathways occur in the brain and throughout the body. Learning all of the pathways felt more like biology and being a chemistry major it was a difficult adjustment. These challenges and adjustments are what allowed this class to meet the liberal arts goals established by Concordia.

1. Instill a love for learning

By having discussion and allowing for us to pick our topics for Wednesday “speed dating” it helped instill a love for learning because we were able to learn more about a specific topic we were interested in and we then got to share this information with each other. The discussions on Fridays were also enjoyable and beneficial to hear other viewpoints and get perspectives from students with varying backgrounds from my own.

2. Develop foundational skills and transferable intellectual capacities

In this class I was able to make connections to other classes I have taken and understand the interconnectedness of the classes. It also taught me how to communicate science in a way that can be enjoyable to those who are not scientists.

3. Develop an understanding of disciplinary, interdisciplinary, and intercultural perspective and their connections

By reading a wide range of studies and review posts along with discussing these reading with my classmates I was able to achieve an intercultural  understanding and then by going over the pathways in class helped solidify the disciplinary and interdisciplinary understanding.

4. Cultivate and examined cultural, ethical, physical, a spiritual self-understanding

Learning about the pathways actually helped explain how various processes occur in the body and why. It allowed for a better understanding of the way things work in the body and why they work that way.

5. Encourage responsible participation in the world

Neurochemistry definitely encourages participation. By being a discussion-based class and having a dedicated day strictly for discussion of the topic allows for you to become active in discussion and allows you to share your perspective and opinions in a respectful and accepting environment.

By practicing these five goals of liberal learning, not just in neurochemistry but in my last four years at Concordia has prepared me far greater for what is next to come than I could have imagined when I began my freshman year in 2019. A liberal arts education has shown me various classes outside of science that I would have never taken and how everything is interconnected in some way. It was challenging at times to get outside of my comfort zone of science and take an english class or a history class. But having to take these classes along with learn in a pandemic has taught me resilience and determination. That no matter how challenging a time you have you can make it through and when you need help and motivation your professors are right there to encourage you through it too.

The connections I have made with my professors and the chemistry department along with the friendships I have made throughout my last four years are truly something I will never forget and will cherish. I will truly miss the Concordia chemistry faculty and ISC.

Farwell Concordia,

What are Endocannabinoids

Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are naturally produced in the body and are lipid-based neurotransmitters. The primary endocannabinoids are arachidonoyl ethionamides (AEA) and 2-archidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) which are agonists to CB1 and CB2 but bind to both receptors. However, CB1 has a higher binding affinity than CB2. eCBs are produced as the body needs them by an increase in intracellular calcium and are degraded through fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). FAAH breaks down AEA and MAGL breaks down 2-AG. The benefits of the endocannabinoid system are that it aids in mood, pain, perception, and learning and memory.

CB1 and CB2 Receptors

CB1 receptors are found primarily in the central nervous system (CNS) and CB2 receptors are primarily in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). CB1 receptor accounts for being the most abundant GPCR in the CNS but is also located on peripheral nerve terminals. Besides binding AEA and 2-AG THC, the main ingredient in cannabis sativa (marijuana), binds at CB1. CB2 receptors can be found in the CNS but are mainly located in cells and tissues of the immune system. CB2 receptors in the CNS are localized to microglia and modulate inhibitory plasticity. Additionally, CB1 and CB2 receptors operate independently from each other.

Receptor Activation

Following activation of CB1 there is a rapid decrease in the levels of cAMP via adenylate cyclase inhibition. This decrease occurs through activation resulting in potassium channel conductance and a decrease in calcium voltage operated channels. Ultimately resulting in a decrease in neurotransmitter release. However, prolonged exposure can result in tolerance and a decrease in the ability of the receptors to activate the endocannabinoid pathway. AEA and 2-AG can bind and activate CB receptors but so can THC and CBD from marijuana.

AEA, 2-AG, THC, and CBD are the only agonists that can bind to CB receptors. However, there are ways to enhance endocannabinoid levels and receptor activation. Both dark chocolate and black truffles contain anandamide (naturally produced endocannabinoid), caffeine, olive oil, exercise, and omega-3 fatty acids upregulate CB receptors. Lastly, cold exposure increases endocannabinoid levels and flavonoids found in tea and wine inhibit the breakdown of endocannabinoids.

Endocannabinoids and Pain

The activation of the endocannabinoid system is associated with pain reduction. However, natural endocannabinoids may not be able to provide the level of activation required of the endocannabinoid system which is when cannabinoids of THC and CBD are introduced. Research has linked cannabis to control and manage pain associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Huntington’s disease (HD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). In MS eCB system activation reduced pain and spasms and provided neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. In HD CB1 receptor activation is reduced, resulting in reduced motor performance. Therefore, enhanced activation of remaining CB1 receptors may help the degradation of the receptors. In AD CB receptor activation is thought to produce a neuroprotective effect and protect individuals against amyloid beta plaque toxicity and reduced tau phosphorylation.

Conclusion

Endocannabinoids are naturally produced in the body and are agonist to CB1 and CB2 receptors, as are phytocannabinoids, THC and CBD. The activation of the endocannabinoid system has been linked to pain reduction, mood stabilization, and memory and learning. Research has begun investigating the therapeutic effects of endocannabinoids on diseases such as HD, MS, and AD.

References

[1] Kendall, D. A., & Yudowski, G. A. (2017). Cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system: Their signaling and roles in disease. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00294

[2] De Pietro, MaryAnn, CRT (2021). What to know about endocannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/endocannabinoid

[3] Fallis, Jordan (2023). 26 powerful ways to boost your endocannabinoid system. Optimal Living Dynamics. https://www.optimallivingdynamics.com/blog/how-to-stimulate-and-support-your-endocannabinoid-system#:~:text=Medium%20and%20high%2Dintensity%20exercise,68%2C%2072%2C%2074)

Introduction

I enjoyed this class because it gave me a chance to blend what I learned from my neuroscience classes with what I learned from my psychology classes. This class focused on the pathology of mental disorders, but I found that my psychology background helped me better understand the whole picture. Both aspects are important because the biology of the brain determines the behavior, but your behavior can also affect the biology of the brain, and both need to be addressed when treating mental disorders. My understanding of mental disorders helped me to connect more with the pathology behind them.

I also think that my psychology background gave me a unique perspective on some of the topics that we covered during our Friday discussion days. I think it’s really easy for the sciences to forget about the humans behind the disorders that are being studied. While psychology is not immune to this, I think neuroscience is at a greater risk because it is so focused on pathology and often only used animal models in its research. The fact that I was taking Abnormal Psychology at the same time as this class made me a lot more aware of how I talk about mental disorders, like when we discussed depression and psychopathy, and how these discussions weren’t always the most sensitive. I know I had to work really hard to keep my comments both scientifically accurate and empathetic at the same time and my psychology background helped me with this.

What Kinds of Learning Occurred for You During this Semester?

My learning for this semester wasn’t so much focused on memorizing information as it was on learning how to read scientific publications and present my findings. Yes, I learned about a lot of signaling pathways that I was unfamiliar with, and I am at least generally aware of how they work now. But there was a lot more time spent on practicing how to read scientific articles, because they’re not the type of writing that you can just pick up, read once, and expect to understand what is going on. You have to take notes, you have to highlight the important parts, you have to identify what you don’t understand and then research those parts. I think that was the most important skill that I learned. The importance of figuring out what you don’t understand and then learning how to teach yourself about it. This was something that I had never done before because I assumed I was supposed to understand everything on the first try. I’m glad that I learned this skill though because it made the publications a lot easier to understand and a lot more enjoyable by proxy.

If You Were to Highlight on Your Resume a Skill or Competency that You Improved this Semester, What Would You be Sure to Include?

This class will be very useful for my future career plans of going into research. The focus that this class placed on understanding how to read scientific articles will come in handy since a lot of research is reviewing past literature. I also found the focus on communicating our findings to the general public to be very useful. When you’re taking a lot of STEM classes and you are friends with mostly other STEM majors, it can be really easy to forget that not everyone understands the lingo that you use. I found the weekly blog posts to be a useful exercise to help me get out of the habit of using those complicated words, because every time I used a niche word, I had to explain what it meant and that got tedious. These blog posts also helped me think more about the way that I present information. Is it entertaining? Is it easy to follow? Am I putting people to sleep with this long paragraph? These are all questions that I started to ask myself when writing my blog posts, and I am hoping to carry that habit with me when writing my own scientific articles.

I’m really glad that this class focused so much on becoming better writers. It’s something that is often overlooked during our science classes, which explains why research articles can be so difficult to read. Hopefully I can be one of the good writers in the scientific community and people will actually like reading my publications.

Conclusion

This class was both really challenging but also fun. The homework took a really long time, but I feel the skills that I gained from doing the homework made it worth the time. It wasn’t just busy work, it taught me how to read and understand scientific articles. It also taught me how to share research with the general public in a more digestible manner. This is a skill that more science students need to be taught because currently academic writing in the sciences is atrocious. I think these skills will be extremely valuable to me when I graduate because I’m planning on going into research, and that field requires a lot of reading scientific literature and sharing my findings with the public. I’ll be sure to put this class on my CV to highlight the skills that I gained.

Concordia and me

In high school, I never thought I would pick Concordia College for the next four years of my education. It was really the people here that drew me into picking the school. I remember visiting schools across the nation and thinking I do not want to stay this close to home, so I don’t need to look at Concordia. I don’t know how or why I did look into Concordia, but the community caught my attention. I got the opportunity to talk to a professor and it really struck me that those small classrooms, close connections to my professor and peers are what I wanted. Throughout my years here now, I have really seen myself learn and grow through not only the curriculum, but also the community within the science department and outside of it too.

Concordia has five goals set in place for the liberal learning experience here on campus. The first is to instill a love for learning. There were definitely classes that I thought were brutal and I won’t lie, it was stressful keeping up sometimes. At the end of the day, however, I was always beyond impressed by how much I found myself learning about so many different topics. Neuroscience was just a major that I thought would be fun to learn about, but I can say all my neuroscience classes were by far my most favorite and I loved learning in every single one of them. I ended up adding a Biology major because why not learn more in more areas!?

The second goal is to develop foundational skills and transferable intellectual capacities. All of my classes have always been so hands on and discussion based where I feel like I gained skills that would be applicable to real life. The labs especially taught me a large varieties of skills including teamwork, problem solving, scientific reasoning, etc. My environmental and global studies classes were also important I thought to me because they gave me more knowledge of real world issues that I otherwise may have been ignorant about.

The third goal to develop an understanding of disciplinary, interdisciplinary, and intercultural perspectives and their connections. While I love my major specific classes, I really liked the well rounded aspect of the liberal learning here at Concordia that allows me to take classes of different subjects as well. I feel like I know so much more about the world and everything out there. My Spanish and inquiry classes especially we got to go out in the communities and talk to people and that was very cool! In my inquiry, we got to go to the New American Consortium and work with people of different cultural backgrounds, which was one of my favorite experiences right off the bat coming into college. These experiences in such classes I thought also really pushed for the fifth goal which is to encourage responsible participation in the world. The clubs and activities also added to my growth in these areas, especially when I was on the DEIC executive committee board. That role was especially fun because I got to really learn about different culture’s celebrations in order to recreate them here on campus. I think this also helped with the fourth goal: Cultivate an examined cultural, ethical, physical and spiritual self-understanding. I think I learned more about myself and the diverse group of people around me through my experiences at Concordia.

This semester and me

This semester was one of my favorites because I think I learned about so many diverse subjects in my classes. Neurochemistry was one of my favorites in my entire college career because of the design of the class being so discussion heavy. In this class I felt like I could use prior knowledge from many of my classes to analyze real life health conditions affecting people in the world. Once we problem solved understanding research articles and the brain pathways causing a variety of illnesses, we could dig deeper into the subject. It was not always just straight science. The open ideas structure really allowed us to learn about so much more like environmental impacts on health or psychological or food or the government and societal stigma. The topics were endless and I loved that lack of restriction in class.

The amount of information and just analyzing skills I have gained from reading, understanding, and discussing so many articles will for sure help me in my career path to becoming a doctor. I think any career, including the ones in healthcare, need skills that involve investigating what is wrong and how it can be fixed. We did this a lot with so many different health conditions throughout the semester. Knowing how these health conditions are formed was really interesting and will be impactful in the future when I may have patients who have many of these.

The discussion-based format of Neurochemistry also played such a huge role in the friendships I have strengthened after the class. Instead of just sitting next to strangers for a semester and listening to lectures, we got to talk to each other and hear so many perspectives of people with so many different backgrounds. We even started hanging out outside of class, which we had never done before this class (as seen in the top featured picture).

Artstract by Dhruvika Patel

What are Cognitive Impairments?

Cognitive impairments are issues that interfere with a person’s ability to think, learn, remember, use proper judgement, and make thought out decisions. There are many signs that can be found in those that might have an impairment, including memory loss, difficulty with concentration, task completion, remembering, following instructions, and solving issues. Due to the wide variety of impacts that can occur, it makes sense that there would be detrimental effects not only on the person, but also their family’s finances. These finances can be a result of increased costs for education, healthcare, and personal daily care. Furthermore, we can’t ignore the emotional burden that also falls upon the family to take on an often-lifelong responsibility. However, their story is not destined to be hopeless forever. There are therapies that can occur to better cognitive abilities along with further research that looks at more possibilities to train the brain through enrichments.

Epigenetics and Enrichment

Epigenetic mechanisms regulate transcription and gene expression. Recent findings suggest that epigenetic processes can be changed through environmental and social rearing conditions. An epigenetic modification is BDNF increase in the hippocampus exposed to environmental enrichment. Environmental enrichment is comprised of 3 domains: increased physical activity, increased social groupings, and increased opportunities for exploration. There are complications to enrichment studies; however, these include having a control group with no confounding variables and manipulating the genome in mutant mouse models.

Brain Mechanisms

Cognitive function depends mainly on neuronal activity and engagement of synaptic proteins and signaling cascades to promote the establishment and strengthening of synaptic contacts. Positive modulators of AMPA receptor have positive effects on learning and memory in rodents. Ampakines are a class of positive allosteric AMPA receptor modulators that work with learning and memory but also promote BDNF expression and protect the brain from neurodegeneration. BDNF is important for neuronal survival, differentiation in the brain, and LTP and learning. Furthermore, Ras-ERK signaling activation is needed for LTP and long-term memories, so germline mutations can be responsible for a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders. BDNF is one thing that is engaged in this RAS-ERK pathway and is important in LTP.

BDNF

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is like the fertilizer of the brain. It is found in the CNS, gut, and other tissues that play an important role in neuronal survival and growth, is a NT modulator, and helps with neuronal plasticity, which is important for learning and memory. BDNF is synthesized in the brain and is released in response to neuronal activity. It binds to specific receptors on the surface of neurons, promoting their survival and growth. Therefore, sufficient BDNF is very important in cognitive abilities. Reduced levels of BDNF are associated with impaired cognitive function and increased risk of cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases. Conversely, increased levels of BDNF have been linked to improved cognitive function and better outcomes in conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and depression. Several studies have suggested that certain nootropics, such as caffeine, creatine, and omega-3 fatty acids, may increase BDNF levels in the brain.

Conclusion

Cognitive impairments impact a fairly large number of people in the world; it not only affects the person, but also their family. BDNF is one area that has been looked at due to its connection with neuronal plasticity. There are natural nootropics that can be taken to enhance such brain function along with environmental enrichment.

Citations

Faiz, M. (2022, February 11). What is BDNF and Why it’s Important for Mental Health? Personalized Prescribing. https://personalizedprescribing.com/blogs/news/what-is-bdnf-and-why-its-important-for-mental-health

Jin, Y., Sun, L. H., Yang, W., Cui, R. J., & Xu, S. B. (n.d.). The role of BDNF in the neuroimmune axis regulation of mood disorders. Frontiers in Neurology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00515

Morè, L., Lauterborn, J. C., Papaleo, F., & Brambilla, R. (2020). Enhancing cognition through pharmacological and environmental interventions: Examples from preclinical models of neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 110, 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.003

NCI dictionary of cancer terms. (n.d.). National Cancer Institute. Retrieved May 4, 2023, from https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/cognitive-impairment