This semester has been full of information that would make most people’s heads spin! Some of the material could be so dense at times that reading it three times and going through the words with a dictionary sometimes still didn’t give you a specific answer. This makes the course frustrating because you want to know but getting a headache while trying to read/understand is not on your to-do list. But your quest for knowledge outweighs the frustration you feel while reading the material (this is my case). This course brought forth so many different topics to study and learn more about. The topics covered ranged from addiction to aging and a large variety in between.
The range of topics really made the class more interesting because you weren’t talking about the same things over and over again. Every week it was a different subject and different discussions that brought up good points and brought new light on some things that some of us hadn’t thought about. Learning this information in a small group setting really helped us learn it better and it actually made us want to do our homework and study. The type of environment we were in really made it easy to learn. It wasn’t a class where the professor did all the talking and the students simply sat there and took notes. This course was a fully student run course where the professor was more of a student and learned the information right along with us.
The part of this course that really caught my attention was that no matter what subject we talked about, they were all connected by one part of the brain or another even if they were complete opposites of each other. And knowing this is a scary thought because you know that if you were to damage one specific area of your brain there is a chance that you could lose multiple abilities. Doesn’t that scare you? Cause it scares me…but it’s so hard not to pursue more information because the complexity, mystery, and danger of the brain is so fascinating and we are a society that needs to have answers to everything.
This class was a fantastic class and I really enjoyed it. Even though the material at times was hard to understand and it could be a lot at times the class was still worth every second and I would recommend it to any student that asked about it.
Alcohol Withdrawals
Some people don’t consider alcohol a drug because it doesn’t give a person the same symptoms as say cocaine or heroin would. But this is not the case. Alcohol is as much a drug as any other because it causes impairments and can be highly addictive just like actual drugs. Just because alcohol is a social item and millions of people drink it during social occasions does not mean it is any different.
Our article on the topic of ethanol focused on the intracellular signaling pathways that are thought to regulate behavioral responses with the consumption of ethanol. In the article, evidence shows that alcohol “modulates” the functions of specific cascades within the brain that include cAMP, PKA, PKC, the tyrosine kinase Fyn, cyclic adenosine 3′, and PLD. With their experiments, they found that some of the cascades mediated the effects of ethanol while others modified the response to ethanol. The authors stated that the studies they looked at found that the specific effects of alcohol on signaling appeared to be only in certain parts of the brain due to the restricted distribution of the proteins during their experiment.
The article talks about the neurological aspects of ethanol behavior but it doesn’t talk about what the actual behaviors are and what they can lead to. The behaviors that come with alcoholism include frequent intoxication, an established pattern of heavy drinking and drinking in dangerous situations, such as when driving. Other early signs of alcoholism include black-out drinking or a drastic change in demeanor while drinking, such as consistently becoming angry or violent. The main symptom of alcohol abuse occurs when someone continues to drink after their drinking reaches a level that causes recurrent problems. Continuing to drink after it causes someone to miss work, drive drunk, avoid responsibilities or get in trouble with the law is considered alcohol abuse. For someone who is alcoholic or alcohol dependent, the symptoms include all of those associated with alcohol abuse. But alcoholics also continue to drink in spite of all the problems it has caused in their lives. When alcohol abuse reaches the alcohol dependence stage, the person also experiences at least three of seven other symptoms, including neglect of other activities, excessive use of alcohol, impaired control of alcohol consumption, persistence of alcohol use, large amounts of time spent in alcohol-related activities, withdrawal symptoms and tolerance of alcohol.
The topic that interest me is the event of alcohol withdrawals. Do alcohol withdrawals actually happen or is that simply something that happens with narcotics? The answer is yes they actually happen and they can be equally as bad as the symptoms of drug withdrawals. Alcohol withdrawal symptoms usually occur within 5 – 10 hours after the last drink, but can occur days later. Symptoms get worse in 48 – 72 hours, and may persist for weeks. Common symptoms include:
- Anxiety or nervousness
- Depression
- Not thinking clearly
- Fatigue
- Irritability
- Jumpiness or shakiness
- Mood swings
- Nightmares
- Clammy skin
- Enlarged (dilated) pupils
- Headache
- Insomnia (sleeping difficulty)
- Loss of appetite
- Nausea and vomiting
- Pallor
- Rapid heart rate
- Sweating
- Tremor of the hands or other body parts
A severe form of alcohol withdrawal called delirium tremens can cause:
- Agitation
- Severe confusion
- Seeing or feeling things that aren’t there (hallucinations)
- Fever
- Seizures
Looking at all of these symptoms and the way people can act during intoxication being an alcoholic does not seem anywhere close to fun but as of June 2011 almost 18 million people have alcohol addictions…that’s one in 12 adults! This is an outrageous number and it only seems to get higher every year. Prevention of alcoholism is being studied but specific treatments are still to be found. Right now they are using treatments that make the person physically ill and the other treatments make the person want to drink less but it does not get rid of their cravings completely. Going back to the article, could it be possible to treat alcoholism using the intracellular signalling pathway cascades talked about in the article? Time will only tell what we can use within the body to help treat this ever growing disease.
http://alcoholism.about.com/od/about/a/symptoms.htm
http://www.bettermedicine.com/article/alcoholism-1/symptoms
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001769/
Neurochemistry vs. Student Teaching
You could say I am lucky enough to have the experience of two capstones for my undergraduate degree. Officially as a chemistry education major student teaching is my capstone, but neurochemistry sounded so good I couldn’t pass it up. It is nice to have student teaching count as a capstone for teachers because our majors are filled to the brim. Yet I feel that for secondary education majors, it is a great benefit for them to take the capstone of the field. I think neurochemistry is able to show the true relevance of chemistry in the world today. There are infinite doors that can be unlocked by the understanding of neurochemistry. I am glad that I have gotten a foundational knowledge in neurochemistry. I feel that in the next few years the field will explode, it will be interesting to see the discoveries that are made and the debates they will fuel.
I am also excited to see how I can incorporate what I have learned and bring it to my own students. I mean I know I can’t get down to the individual pathways with them (which is okay because I am sure I won’t remember most of them), but I am hoping that I can use the foundational knowledge that I have acquired and use it to show my students just how important chemistry is in this world. I think neurochemistry can truly show students just how far a knowledge of chemistry can take them. And this is truly one of my goals in life, I believe that it is possible to get any high school student to be interested in chemistry, you just have to show them the right information in the right way. So many high school students are board out of there mind in chemistry class, and by no means is it their fault. I have watched too many teachers talk on and on and on about this subject without giving any rational to why the students should learn the subject. For every lesson plan teachers Teachers are suppose to create a rational that they can explain why students need to know the topic. Yet so many teachers are focusing on that specific topic, or on state standards that they forget to give the rational for their entire coarse. As a future teacher I find this so concerning, I plan to take the first two days off from chemistry content. The first day I want to talk the rational of getting an education with my students, because I believe so many of them are just as caught up in the systems rut as the teachers are. The second day would be a rational for chemistry, I want to create a very discussion based class period in which I can hopefully open there eyes to what chemistry can do for them. And I can promise that neurochemistry will be part of that disscussion.
Autism vs. Asperger's Syndrome
One of the articles we read had the main topic of autism and the environmental and genetic factors that can cause it. In the article it talks about the redox/methylation hypothesis and how it leads to the development of autism. The hypothesis states that genetic factors and environmental factors bot lead to impaired sulfur metabolism in the body which leads to oxidative stress which scientist believe not only leads to autism but also can lead to cancer and Alzheimer’s disease. In terms of autism, the oxidative stress leads to a decrease in methionine synthase activity. The hypothesis then states that this decrease will lead to both a decrease in the methylation of DNA and also a decrease dopamine receptor phospholipid methylation. The decrease of both of these lead to decreases in attention, cognition and development, which are a few of the main symptoms in autistic individuals. One question that some want to know is if this mechanism causes the other autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and how truly different are classic autism and Asperger’s.
We know that autism is a developmental disorder that affects the communication, social and development skills of those affected by it. They usually have a difficult time with speech and gesturing, communication, socializing with others and they are know to have very repetitive qualities such as continuously clapping their hands or they can also repeat sounds or movements. Echolalia or repeating of the words someone has just said to you, is another symptom of classic autism. Also, some individuals with autism can have tantrums, physical tics, they sometimes do not like physical contact such as cuddling or hugs but this is usually pertains to people outside of their immediate family, they can sometimes have difficulty understanding other people’s emotions,Signs that a child might have autism include: doesn’t babble or coo by 12 months, doesn’t gesture — such as point or wave — by 12 months, doesn’t say single words by 16 months, doesn’t say two-word phrases by 24 months, or loses previously acquired language or social skills at any age.
Asperger’s syndrome is a developmental disorder that affects a person’s ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others. Children with Asperger’s syndrome typically exhibit social awkwardness and an all-absorbing interest in specific topics. Asperger’s syndrome symptoms include: engaging in one-sided, long-winded conversations, without noticing if the listener is listening or trying to change the subject, displaying unusual nonverbal communication, such as lack of eye contact, few facial expressions, or awkward body postures and gestures, showing an intense obsession with one or two specific, narrow subjects, such as baseball statistics, train schedules, weather or snakes, appearing not to understand, empathize with or be sensitive to others’ feelings, having a hard time “reading” other people or understanding humor, speaking in a voice that is monotonous, rigid or unusually fast, and moving clumsily, with poor coordination. Unlike children with more-severe forms of autism spectrum disorders, those with Asperger’s syndrome usually don’t have delays in the development of language skills. However, children with Asperger’s syndrome may have difficulties holding normal conversations. Their conversations may feel awkward and lack the usual give and take of normal social interactions. Toddlers and school-age children with Asperger’s syndrome may not show an interest in friendships. Those with Asperger’s often have developmental delays in their motor skills, such as walking, catching a ball or playing on playground equipment. In early childhood, kids with Asperger’s may be quite active. By young adulthood, people with Asperger’s syndrome may experience depression or anxiety. If an elementary schoolchild has frequent problems in school or seems unable to make friends, a doctor should be consulted.
So looking at both of these disorders there doesn’t seem to be a big difference between them and in all actuality there isn’t. But the big difference is how children with Asperger’s develop and the communication skills they have. Children with autism develop very poor speech if any at all and those with Asperger’s usually have a very extensive vocabulary. Autistic children usually do not attend public schools, those with Asperger’s are more than capable of attending school it’s just that they will have a difficult time holding conversations and making friends. These two disorders are so similar and yet so different. But in the end I believe that the mechanism described in the paper for autism also plays a big part in the development of Asperger’s.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/aspergers-syndrome/DS00551
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/autism/DS00348
Ethanol and Knockouts… Mice, that is
One of the articles we focused on was a review on the signaling caused by ethanol (commonly known as alcohol). Ethanol has various cellular effects that result in dependence, preference, and seeking behaviors. One of the main pathways is where ethanol stimulates the synthesis of the second messenger cAMP through activating the enzyme adenylyl cyclase. Formation of cAMP is also reinforced by inhibiting ENT1, which leads to the accumulation of adenosine outside of the cell.
Another mechanism of ethanol reward reinforcement is the activation or inhibition of NMDA receptors. NMDA is a glutamate receptor that is important in the reward pathway. Ethanol binds to a complex, Fyn, that regulates NMDAR activity.Fyn dissociates from the receptor. NMDARs are also affected by a molecule called DARP-32, which when phosphorylated, keeps NMDARs active. DARP-32 receives a phosphate from an enzyme called PKA which is regulated by cAMP. With ethanol, there is more cAMP which increases the active DARP-32. These mechanisms encourage reward signaling.
Many pathways are characterized using knockout mice. Knockout can also refer to transgenic or genetically modified. A specific gene has been interrupted in mice (also yeast, bacteria, plants. . . just about anything), by a piece of DNA. The genetic expression of the mouse will be affected; hopefully the absence of a protein product will tell researchers what that gene is used to produce.
Knockout mice were used in many of the cited studies in the ethanol paper. For instance, mice without the ENT1 gene showed lower responses to ethanol. The ethanol didn’t affect them as much, indicating ethanol interacts with the ENT1 receptor. One important transgenic mouse was the Fyn kinase deficient mice. These guys (or girls) did not produce any Fyn product. The results showed that NMDA receptors were not phosphorylated. Based on this, the conclusion is that Fyn is the enzyme that acts on the NMDA receptor.
Transgenic organisms can be used to study gene sequences that are known but the function remains unknown. They are a useful tool for elucidating the signaling pathways, not only in the nervous system, but the rest of body as well. A drawback of transgenic mice is that there is a possibility the cells are somehow compensating for the lost gene product. The organism is a messy system, but taking it step-by-step, one knockout at a time, we may be able to figure out the mechanisms that drive life.
Final Thoughts on Neurochemistry
Neurochemistry was a unique science course, different from any of my other courses throughout my college career. We read articles, focusing on understanding them, and then discussing the scientific concepts along with how they pertain to everyday life. The latter aspect is one of the most important lessons I took away from the semester. The research performed by scientists impacts everyday life. It leads to the development of new drugs and a greater understanding of the mechanisms behind the brain and disorders. But another thing that is just as important as the discovery is the communication of results, not only to the science community but the general public as well. I have realized that many people outside of science disciplines are interested in research. I looked forward to reading or hearing about comments left by other AreaVoices readers.
This course has improved my skills at reading and interpreting scientific papers. In addition, I have developed my ability to communicate findings to both my peers and others. The blog was a beneficial and fun aspect of the class. I believe this is what made Neurochemistry so unique. None of my previous courses have emphasized the importance of communicating to the general public. It was all about academic audiences. Although I did not do my best at maintaining my blog entries (I have never been good with journals either), I feel this is something I would like to continue, especially during my graduate studies. Overall, the Neurochemistry course had a completely different set-up than others but it was a beneficial class that encouraged the Concordia motto: becoming responsibly engaged in the world.
Axons, Concussions, and MMA
Head injuries are becoming an increasing concern, especially with contact sports. Successive concussions without treatment are also an issue. Concussive force to the head can be caused by a variety of biomechanical forces including impact between brain and skull due to angular or straight force on head, traction on brainstem neurons due to forceful movement of hemispheres, skull bone deformation and eventual deformation of brain tissue, acceleration of head on axis of neck (whiplash). The trauma to the brain causes neuronal axon stretching and injury which leads to unrestricted influx and efflux of ions in neurons. The neurons try to restore the balance of ions by using energy-driven pumps. This sends cellular metabolism into overdrive and eventually gets depressed. Calcium ions also accumulate which sends signals for cell death. It takes a while for neurons to recover, especially if there has been physical damage to the neurons or axons.
How much force does it take to cause a concussion? Well, it varies. A professional and champion boxer can strike with 993 pounds of force, as seen on National Geographic’s Fight Science. This was a straight-on punch. With that amount of force, the brain would definitely slide back and forth and impact with the skull. Do punches with less force also result in brain trauma? Or how about punches from different angles, like an uppercut or a hook punch?
Concussions are an issue in any sport, especially football, hockey, boxing, and MMA. Mixed martial arts is fairly new in the popular realm, but from what I’ve seen it is one of the safest in terms of brain injuries. A major component of MMA is grappling where joint locks are used to bring opponents into submission. Numerous fights end in a tap-out rather than a knockout. Also, referees are able to stop fights after the first blow that seems like it resulted in a concussion. Not only that, but medical exams before and after fights are conducted, along with medical suspensions that are required in the UFC. Although there may seem like a lot of risks, many fighters know what they are getting into, even the future concerns. For a video featuring UFC president Dana White along with other fighters describing the precautions with concussions, please follow the link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=fc2oIIEv20E
And for more information about concussions and precautions for both athletes and coaches, check out the CDC website: http://www.cdc.gov/features/concussion/
Music Therapy: A Possible Treatment for Autism
Autism is a pervasive developmental disorder that has increased in number of cases, from 3 in 10,000 in 1970 to 66 in 10,000 in 2002. Genetic factors alone cannot compensate for the level of increase in autism, so there must be some environmental effect. Or perhaps diagnoses for autism has changed. Whatever the cause of the increase in number, the result is that there is still more autism. One hypothesis of the development of autism is the redox/methylation hypothesis. Genetic risk factors and environmental exposure combine and lead to impaired sulfur metabolism, which results in increased oxidative stress. This stress takes a toll on cells, inducing decreased methylation which is important for activating gene expression and synchronization of neurons. These can lead to developmental delays and decreased attention and cognition, which are characteristic of autism.
The redox/methylation hypothesis presents a fascinating mechanism for autism, along with possible drug targets along the way. I wish to discuss one treatment that is being used currently: music and sound therapy. In the book titled The Mozart Effect by Don Campbell, the author tells several stories about cases where music was used to help a child with autism. One of my favorite stories features the use of “sonic rebirth,” where a simulated uterine environment is used to filter sounds. French physician, Alfred Tomatis, discovered that fetuses are capable of hearing sounds within the womb. He filtered out the low frequency sounds of the mother’s voice, mimicing the environment of the womb. An autistic child was brought to Tomatis by a colleague who had observed that children with autism are “not yet born.” Tomatis recorded the mother’s voice, filtered it, and then exposed the child to it. Instantly the child jumped up and turned off the lights. He then proceeded to interact with his mother for the first time in 10 years, sucking on his thumb and sitting on her knees with her arms around him. The boy had more treatments. After one treatment, he even retrieved his mother’s jacket and draped it over her shoulders.
The “sonic rebirth” is an interesting, fantastic, and heart-warming treatment. Other music aside from exposure to simulated uterine sounds benefits people with autism. Some autistic children are brilliant musicians, able to learn and recall melodies easily. The book The Mozart Effect provides many anecdotes about music. Perhaps music may play a role in reducing oxidative stress, enabling more methylation to take place?
Bipolar Disorder and the Stigma of Mental Illness
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a mental disorder characterized by changes in mood. BD I has cycles of mania and depression while BD II has cycles of hypomania and depression. In general, the mania cycles are treated with mood stabilizers medication. Antidepressants tend to induce the manic cycles. Based on the effects of treatments like lithium, carbamazepine, and sodium valproate, researchers have developed the “arachidonic acid cascade hypothesis” for BD pathology. Those aforementioned medications all show down-regulation of the brain arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism. AA is a fatty acid that is released by phospholipase A2. It metabolizes into different compounds called eicosanoids. AA and eicosanoids have many functions, some of which are neurotransmission, blood flow, neurite outgrowth, and also inflammation. The mood stabilizers are thought to have effects on both AA and downstream cascade products. These effects of mood stabilizers show that the mechanism of BD has a neurobiological cause.
This subject struck close to home. My family has a history of mental illness ranging from depression, alcoholism, eating disorders, and also bipolar disorder. I am afraid to tell other people, even my friends, about the prevalence of mental disorders in my family, especially my own experience with depression. In general, most people do not talk about this type of disease. This is the stigma of mental illness.
The silence associated with mental illness is devastating, especially to those who need treatment. Going to a therapist or a psychiatrist has a negative connotation. After all, if we can’t control our mind, we must be broken. But those who need treatment need to know that it is okay to seek help. It is okay to seek support, but first that support must come from those closest to you. The stigma needs to be changed in order to get people help.
Diseases such as cancer and HIV are now socially “accepted,” so to say. They are biologically based. The workings of the mind and brain are also biologically based. Just a slight deviation of a neurotransmitter can cause a cascade of events leading to different behaviors. The actions of mood stabilizers show that BD and other mental illnesses also are biologically based. Why can they not be talked about as much as cancer?
For further reading, please look at these articles. One is written by Glenn Close, whose sister suffers from bipolar disorder. She also discusses the portrayal of the mentally ill in Hollywood.
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/glenn-close/mental-illness-the-stigma_b_328591.html
http://psychcentral.com/news/2010/09/23/stigma-for-mental-illness-high-possibly-worsening/18524.html
http://bringchange2mind.org/
Autism's Growing Behavior
Autism is a disease that has affected families around the world and has become an ever-growing problem in the United States. Autism is known as a complex, developmental disability linked to abnormal biology and chemistry in the brain. Experts believe that Autism presents itself during the first three years of a person’s life. The condition is the result of a neurological disorder that has an effect on normal brain function, affecting development of the person’s communication and social interaction skills. However, the exact mechanisms in which the disease functions remains unknown. In the United States, autism has been on an unusually steep rise since 1970. It is the goal of researchers to determine what has caused this sharp increase. In order to explain this, researchers have turned to examining the disease mechanistically.
Researchers have learned from twin and sibling studies that genetic factors play a role in autism. However, the genetic factors cannot be the sole reason autism develops in young children. Thus, experimental factors are proposed to be the cause for the increase in autistic individuals. These factors can include diet, exercise, vaccine sensitivity, or anything outside the body that could alter the interior. Being that this brings about a broad category of factors that could lead to autism, researchers have hypothesized a “redox/methylation” hypothesis.
In this hypothesis, researchers have noted that environmental factors lead to oxidative stress. Because neuronal cells exhibit the most sensitivity to oxidative stress, the brain is affected the most with autism. Given the correct risk genes, a number of adaptive responses involving sulfur metabolism are initiated once oxidative stress has taken its course. This leads to an inhibition of methionine synthase, which greatly reduces methylation activity. Most importantly, this affects DNA methylation and dopamine-stimulated phospholipid methylation. This decrease in DNA methylation disrupts epigenetic events that are characteristic of normal development. The decrease in dopamine-stimulated phospholipid methylation restricts the frequency-dependent synchronization of neuronal networks. Thus, communication between neurons is altered. This is linked to the lack of attention and cognition.
Although the “redox/methylation” hypothesis is purely speculation, the research has led to areas of interest involved with autism. The hypothesis has found a general explanation for autism but does lack in areas regarding specific cases of autism. However, the “redox/methylation” hypothesis does provide a starting point at which researchers can hope to build upon. In order to validate the hypothesis, the specific causes of autism need to be identified.