Welcome to my final blog post of the semester! As an international student from Rwanda studying at Concordia, my experiences in the neurochemistry class have been unique and have allowed me to integrate and apply the skills and competencies that I have gained throughout my education here.

At Concordia, the emphasis on liberal learning and becoming responsibly engaged in the world has been a guiding principle for me. In particular, the five goals for liberal learning have been instrumental in shaping my educational experience. As an international student, I have found that these goals have been especially important in helping me develop a better understanding of American culture and its connections to my own culture.

Over the course of the semester, I have gained a deeper understanding of neurochemistry and its connections to other disciplines such as biology, psychology, and pharmacology. By examining neurochemistry from these interdisciplinary perspectives, I have developed a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this field. This learning has allowed me to apply my foundational skills and transferable intellectual capacities in new and exciting ways.

In addition to enhancing my understanding of neurochemistry, the skills and competencies I have gained in this class are highly applicable to my future aspirations of becoming a healthcare professional. As an international student from Rwanda, I am well aware of the challenges that lie ahead in pursuing a career in medicine. However, instead of being discouraged by these barriers, I feel more determined than ever to overcome them and make a positive impact in the healthcare industry. The insights gained from studying neurochemistry have given me the confidence to tackle complex problems and approach patient care from a holistic perspective. With a deep understanding of how the human body and mind function, I am confident that I can provide excellent care to patients from all backgrounds. Ultimately, I believe that the skills and competencies I have gained through this course will be instrumental in achieving my long-term goals of becoming a compassionate and competent healthcare professional.

To me, learning at a liberal arts institution like Concordia means developing a well-rounded understanding of the world that prepares me to be a responsible and engaged citizen, not just in the United States but also in my home country of Rwanda. It means approaching problems from multiple perspectives, cultivating my own sense of self-awareness and ethical responsibility, and developing the skills and competencies necessary to be successful in a rapidly changing world.

One of the skills that I have improved upon this semester is my ability to think critically and solve problems using multiple disciplinary perspectives. As an international student, I have had to navigate cultural differences and overcome language barriers to succeed in this class. Having a supportive professor and a positive classroom environment played a crucial role in my success.

Overall, I am grateful for the opportunity to study neurochemistry at Concordia and to apply the skills and competencies that I have gained throughout my education here. As an international student with aspirations of going to medical school, I know that the journey ahead will be challenging. However, I am confident that my experiences at Concordia have prepared me well for this journey, and I look forward to applying these skills and competencies as I pursue my future goals in healthcare.

Reference:

https://catalog.concordiacollege.edu/core-curriculum/goals-liberal-learning/

What is obesity?

Obesity is considered to be an excessive or abnormal buildup of fat that causes risk to one’s health. Body mass index is how this is normally determined with people over 25 being labeled as overweight (Fig. 1). However, BMI is not always the most accurate representation because body mass can also be muscle weight instead of fat. For example, a body builder will obviously weigh more because of their muscle, but this does not mean they are obese. Society seems to have a stigma associated with the term “obese”, but the brain functioning behind this need to eat is important to understand. Furthermore, the problems with obesity do not stop there; the after-effects of the condition can include type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders.

The hypothalamus and Obesity

One of the main components that plays a role in obesity relates to the hypothalamus, which is known for its role in homeostasis. The hypothalamus controls metabolic feedback and regulates energy homeostasis, so it has important influences on feeding behavior and energy spending. How does the hypothalamus do this? It is able to sense and integrate feedback from adipostatic hormones that are responsible for circulation of nutrients to adipose tissue. Specifically, leptin and insulin directly affect the ARC of the hypothalamus that works with energy homeostasis. However, neuronal inflammation and insulin and leptin resistance of the ARC neurons disrupts the metabolic feedback loop, which causes an increase food intake and body weight gain. Overconsumption of fat-rich diets changes the feedback sent to leptin and insulin, causing hypothalamus inflammation.

Further Inflammation caused by Saturated Fatty Acids

Inflammation can be worsened with other factors as well. One factor that plays a role in this are cytokines; they are small proteins that are vital in controlling the growth and activity of other cells. However, during diet-induced obesity, cytokines are overactivated, which farther leads to more hypothalamic inflammation. Saturated fatty acids can modulate neuronal control of energetic homeostasis as well. These fatty acids can cross the blood brain barrier, accumulating in the hypothalamus and triggering inflammatory signaling cascades.

Other eating Disorders- Serotonin and Dopamine

We know the background on the homeostasis imbalance that occurs for irregular feeding. Then, what are the eating disorders that can occur from different brain imbalances? First of all, eating disorders are serious health conditions that affect both your physical and mental health. These conditions include problems in how you think about food, eating, weight and shape, and in your eating behaviors (Fig. 2). These symptoms can affect your health, your emotions, and your ability to function in important areas of life.

Dopamine and serotonin also have been linked to eating disorders like anorexia. Dopamine is a chemical involved in weight, feeding behaviors, reinforcement, and reward. Since serotonin is involved with satiety and dopamine is associated with the brain’s reward system, altered receptor activity may explain why people with Anorexia have reduced hunger signals and alterations in their food reward system. Dopamine has also been linked with binge eating because it has a role in food cravings, decision making, executive function, and impulsivity, as well as its functional associations with these risk factors.

Conclusion

Obesity has a negative connotation often associated with it in society. However, it is important to understand the complexity behind what causes obesity. Obesity is not the only eating disorder that impacts so many lives; rather, there are many others as well that are caused by the changes in our brains. The hypothalamus, specifically, is often affected because of its role in homeostasis. The reward system is also crucial in how we eat and see food. The complexity behind eating is great and not an easy obstacle to overcome.

Citations:

• Jais, A., & Brüning, J. C. (2017). Hypothalamic inflammation in obesity and metabolic disease. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 127(1), 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci88878
• Steiger, H. (2004). Eating disorders and the serotonin connection: State, trait and developmental effects. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 29(1).
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2008, December 3). Body mass index (BMI). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/body-mass-index
• Ward-Zaragoza, M. (n.d.). Eating Disorder Awareness Week explained: Support, resources, symptoms. Buena Speaks. Retrieved April 29, 2023, from https://buenaspeaks.org/6407/features/eating-disorder-awareness-week-explained-support-resources-symptoms/
• WHO, W. H. O. (2020, February 21). Obesity. World Health Organization: WHO. https://www.who.int/health-topics/obesity

With graduation just a short 8 days away, this is my last assignment for a class ever! I am sitting in a Starbucks sipping on an iced chai tea reminiscing on how much I have grown as a student and as a person over the last four years thanks to Concordia and the liberal arts curriculum.

If I am being honest, I only applied to Concordia because the mascot was a corn cob and I love corn. I later found out that it was a liberal arts college, and being a first-generation student, I had no idea what that meant. I took the time to look up exactly what that meant and I really loved that Concordia was going to give me this well-rounded education that isn’t offered at other universities around Fargo-Moorhead.

When I began taking classes that didn’t fully align with my major, I was a little upset because all I wanted to do was learn about psychology and neuroscience. My mind completely changed the more I took classes such as Spanish, religion, English, philosophy, and many more. These classes showed me a new perspective on life and I will forever be grateful for that.

Neurochemistry was the final class I needed to complete my neuroscience major and to be honest I was scared that I wasn’t going to be good at this class. I thought that I wasn’t going to be smart enough to understand all the signaling pathways, but I was wrong! Neurochemistry turned out to be in my top 3 favorite classes ever taken at Concordia. The structure of this class has been life changing. Being able to read articles about real life things, research something I am interested in each week, and getting to have discussions with my classmates has made this class more beneficial that I could’ve ever imagined.

Concordia College has five goals for liberal arts learning and I truly believe I have met every single one of these goals throughout my four years here.

1. Instill a Love for Learning:
   • I have always loved school but making the choice to go to college and commit to another four years of learning is a huge deal. I was excited to continue my education and learn things that I never knew existed, which is what I did in each class I took at Concordia. Learning is a life-long process and I am more than happy to continue learning in any I can whether that be in a classroom or through societal connections in the world around me. I have treated my classes as opportunities to learn and not just assignments and tests that I have to do. I am able to learn new information everyday and use it to understand the world around me.
2. Develop Foundational Skills and Transferable Intellectual Capacities: 
   • People have always said that the skills you learn in school will be skills you need for the rest of your life, and boy were they right! I have learned how to problem solve, critically think, make decisions, acknowledge other perspectives, assess all kinds of information, and more. Throughout the many classes I have taken, I have learned and used one of more of the skills listed above. These skills are going to follow me into my career and even in my everyday life. Being able to use critical thinking to work through a problem is the skill I value most. I will fully admit I was not a good critical thinker until I came here and was constantly challenged (in a good way) by my professors to work through problems and use all of the knowledge I have and different perspectives to try and solve it, and I will appreciate that forever.
3. Develop an Understanding of Disciplinary, Interdisciplinary, and Intercultural Perspectives and their Connections:
   • Something that I learned pretty early on was the fact that you can use the things you learn in your major and apply it to almost any other class you take or even just your life. Neuroscience is one of the biggest interdisciplinary majors because of how applicable it is to every aspect of life, which is why I love it so much! Everything I have learned in my neuroscience classes I have been able to use in other classes I take, even Spanish! By being proficient in neuroscience and psychology I am able to expand the things I learn to other areas to help me understand those areas as well, creating a well-rounded education.
4. Cultivate an Examined Cultural, Ethical, Physical, and Spiritual Self-Understanding:
   • I have learned so much about myself and other people throughout my time here. There are many factors that make someone who they are and I didn’t even pay attention to this until I started taking classes here. Without this well-rounded education, I truly don’t think I would be able to understand myself and others as much as I do right now. I have learned about religion, culture, spirituality, social, and many more factors that make people who they are. This has allowed me to shut down any preconceived notions about people because I do not know everything about someone and how these factors are affecting them on a daily basis.
5. Encourage Responsible Participation in the World: 
   • BREW! One of the many acronyms used at Concordia. I wish I would’ve kept track of how many times I have said BREW over the past four years because it would definitely be in the triple digits. Once I learned what BREW meant, I saw it applying to my life almost daily! I have loved being able to take what I learn in school and use it to influence the outside world. I love seeing my school world and my outside world collide – it makes me light up with joy. I love learning and I love sharing what I learn with everyone! I love introducing people to new ideas and new perspectives of thinking.

Over the past four months, neurochemistry has allowed me the space to think about all of these goals. I have hit all of them in my four years at Concordia, but also in the last four months taking this class. Dr. Mach provides a great environment for learning and for thinking about things that aren’t found in a textbook. This class has  made me learn in new ways, such as trying to understand a complex disease, trying to figure out the connections between the topics we talk about and the outside world, and so many more ways that I can’t even explain them. My critical thinking has grown exponentially the past four months and that is 100% because of this class and the way it is structured. This skill and many more will forever follow me.

Concordia College has been my home away from home for the past four years and it is time to say see you later. I will forever be grateful for the experiences that were  offered to me, the friends I made, the professors who believed in me when I didn’t believe in myself, and the turkeys for making me smile everyday.

Soli Deo Gloria

Olivia Pederson, Class of 2023.

What are nootropics?

Nootropics can be defined as “natural, semi-synthetic and synthetic molecules that claim to enhance cognitive function.” Often, they are consumed in the form of supplements. However, these supplements have yet to be approved by the FDA for the general population.

Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability, or ID, affects 1 in 20 people in the United States. Those who suffer from ID also suffer from emotional and financial burdens along with “direct impairments on the individual and their ability to function in society.” [1] As such, there have been many attempts to improve the everyday lives of these people. However, all these therapies can be challenging because one size doesn’t fit all in this case. For example, a medication that targets gene defects may work for a person who develops ID because of a gene mutation, but it will not work for someone who develops ID because of disease. It’s clear that a one size fits all therapy would be the best outcome for everyone. Therapies that generalize to many types of disorders or conditions that are associated with cognitive dysfunction may be useful. There are a total of six neurocognitive domains, pictured below, that are assessed when addressing ID: perceptual and motor function, language and memory, social cognition, attention, and executive function. All these domains function together, and they do not and cannot operate in an isolated form. Knowing this, scientists have been working on multiple strategies that would help to enhance cognitive functioning. The two that will be addressed are environmental enrichment and pharmacological strategies that target signaling pathways.

Environmental Enrichment

   When talking about animals in this sense, it is easy to control their environment, but less so when talking about humans. Experimenting with rats, for example, researchers can control whether they are in an environment that enriches the rat or one that causes stress. Environmental enrichment is “the stimulation of the brain by its physical and social surroundings.” [2] It isn’t as easy to control our own environment, but we can avoid things that cause stress, as well as indulge ourselves in things that lead to happiness. Some examples that give us enrichment are mental stimulation, light, social partners, the birth of a baby, developing a hobby, etc. All these examples add value to our lives. [3]

Pharmacological Strategies

   Before addressing that pharmacological strategies that can be used to treat ID, we first need to address BDNF. Brain-derived neurotropic factor, BDNF, plays an important role in survival and growth of neurons. It also plays a role in neuroplasticity which aids in memory and learning. BDNF is released in response to neuronal activity and binds to specific receptors on neuron surfaces which promotes their survival and growth. Too much or too little BDNF in the brain causes problems, everything in moderation. Too much may cause seizures, while too little is associated with ID. For those of us who do not suffer from ID, there are natural remedies to increase BDNF: coffee, blueberries, omega-3, zinc, and so much more. [4] Although supplements may not be FDA-approved, there are plenty of safe, healthy, and natural ways to increase BDNF levels. On the other hand, for those who do suffer from ID, ampakines seem to be a very promising remedy. Ampakines are drugs that directly increase the levels of BDNF, and support neuronal survival and differentiation.

So, what?

BDNF levels are decreased in the brains of those diagnosed with ID. There are non-pharmacological and pharmacological strategies to address this, and combining both is the most promising. Do not use this information as a diagnosis, or treatment for yourself or someone you may know. It’s important to know that these strategies may not work for everyone. All this information is just the basis to ID and what is going on in the brain. There still needs to be more development and research to help improve the lives of those with ID. But the information that has known is a great start.

[1] Morè, L., Lauterborn, J. C., Papaleo, F., & Brambilla, R. (2020). Enhancing cognition through pharmacological and environmental interventions: Examples from preclinical models of neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 110, 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.003

[2] McDonald, M. W., Hayward, K. S., Rosbergen, I. C. M., Jeffers, M. S., & Corbett, D. (2018, June 14). Is environmental enrichment ready for clinical application in human post-stroke rehabilitation? Frontiers. Retrieved April 27, 2023, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00135/full

[3] McDonald, M. W., Hayward, K. S., Rosbergen, I. C. M., Jeffers, M. S., & Corbett, D. (2018, June 14). Is environmental enrichment ready for clinical application in human post-stroke rehabilitation? Frontiers. Retrieved April 27, 2023, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00135/full

[4] How to increase BDNF: 10 Ways To Rescue Your Brain. Strong Coffee Company. (n.d.). Retrieved April 27, 2023, from https://strongcoffeecompany.com/blogs/strong-words/how-to-increase-bdnf-10-ways-to-rescue-your-brain

Nootropics

Nootropics, also known as “smart drugs” or cognitive enhancers, are substances that are believed to enhance cognitive function, memory, creativity, and motivation. Nootropics can include natural substances such as herbs and botanicals, as well as synthetic substances like prescription drugs and supplements.

While the use of nootropics is not new, interest in them has grown in recent years as people look for ways to optimize their mental performance. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness and safety of nootropics can vary widely, and some are not well-researched or regulated.

Potential Benefits of Nootropics

The potential benefits of nootropics are varied and depend on the specific substance being used. Some of the most commonly reported benefits include:

1. Improved focus and concentration
2. Increased memory and learning capacity
3. Enhanced creativity and problem-solving abilities
4. Reduced anxiety and stress levels
5. Increased motivation and productivity

However, it is important to note that not all nootropics are created equal, and the effectiveness of these substances can vary widely based on individual factors like genetics, diet, and lifestyle.

BDNF

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the growth and survival of neurons in the brain. BDNF also plays an important role in the formation of new neural connections, which is key for learning and memory. Studies have shown that some nootropics may be able to increase BDNF levels in the brain, which could have potential benefits for cognitive function.

BDNF Signaling Pathway

BDNF activates the Ras-ERK pathway. The Ras-ERK pathway is involved in a variety of cellular processes that are important for cognitive function, including neuronal growth and differentiation, synaptic plasticity, and long-term potentiation (LTP), which is a cellular mechanism thought to underlie learning and memory. Studies have shown that inhibiting the Ras-ERK pathway can impair LTP and cognitive function, while activating this pathway can enhance LTP and cognitive function.

One of the most well-known nootropics that may increase BDNF levels is exercise. Regular physical activity has been shown to increase BDNF levels in the brain, which may help improve cognitive function and reduce the risk of age-related cognitive decline.

In addition to exercise, certain dietary supplements have also been shown to increase BDNF levels. For example, omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oil have been shown to increase BDNF levels in the brain, which may help improve cognitive function and reduce the risk of depression.

As the paper for this week mentioned, combining environmental enrichment therapies with those that promote neuronal activity and signaling, such as selective activation of the Ras-ERK pathway, and/or facilitate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) through the use of ampakines, may be a promising strategy for improving learning and memory in various forms of cognitive impairment, including those that occur during early development and aging. However, more research is needed to determine the extent to which these therapies can improve cognitive/behavioral impairments in different disorders or conditions of impairment, as well as the most effective treatment regimens.

References:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763418302926?via%3Dihub

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.frontiersin.org%2Farticles%2F10.3389%2Ffnins.2019.00790%2Ffull&psig=AOvVaw0Y1JZ9hwMRf9An4uAusnT0&ust=1682616000287000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCICP4JmHyP4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

The Endocannabinoid System

The endocannabinoid system is a regulatory system in our bodies that has effects on many functions such as mood, pain, learning and memory, inflammatory response, and eating. There has also been evidence that the endocannabinoid system plays a neuroprotective role following injury (1).

There has been a lot of interest lately in the utilization of this system as a therapeutic target for many diseases. Drugs that act on the endocannabinoid system to increase appetite and to help treat seizures caused by epilepsy have been approved, and utilize both CBD and THC to do so.

Endocannabinoids

Our bodies naturally produce molecules that activate this system, called endocannabinoids. These molecules are produced on-demand in response to the state our body is in. The receptors endocannabinoids act on are two types of CB receptors.

1. 

   CB1 receptors are primarily found in the central nervous system, and are mainly on presynaptic neurons.

2. CB2 receptors are found commonly on cells and tissues in the immune system, and are mainly activated in response to inflammation.

There are also exogenous materials that will act on the endocannabinoid system. Most commonly known and used are cannabis and THC.

Cannabis and THC

While you may have heard the terms marijuana and cannabis used interchangeable there are different meanings to each. The word ‘cannabis’ refers to all products derived from the plant Cannabis sativa. ‘Marijuana” refers to parts or products from the Cannabis sativa plant that contain a significant amount of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

All natural (non-synthetic) marijuana is cannabis, but not all cannabis is marijuana. Hemp is the term used for cannabis compounds that contain less than .3% of THC or less (2).

• THC: the main psychoactive molecule found in cannabis plants. This is the molecule that produces the ‘high’ sensation.
• CBD: cannabidiol is a molecule found in cannabis and is an activator of the endocannabinoid system. This molecule however doesn’t give the high that THC does.

Throughout the 1900s it became illegal in most of the world to grow cannabis plants for sale or personal use. But why?

Drug Scheduling in the US

To talk about the illegality of cannabis and THC, we need to have some basic understanding of how drug classification works in the United States. Under the Controlled Substances Act the government allowed the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to classify drugs into 5 categories depending on the drugs accepted medical uses and it’s potential for abuse and addiction.

The higher the schedule, the more potential for abuse and addiction. Schedule 1 drugs are substances or chemicals that are defined as “drugs with no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse” (3). Examples include LSD, ecstasy, and marijuana.

Woah wait! Why is marijuana included in that list when we already mentioned drugs that use THC?  That’s where it gets tricky.

Medical Uses for CBD and THC

It’s commonly known that THC can induce hunger, or ‘the muchies’. Dronabinol is a capsule form of synthetic THC that is used as an appetite stimulant. It was approved in 1985 by the FDA, and was classified as a schedule 2 medication. However in 1991 it was rescheduled to schedule 3 based on evidence that it has low potential for abuse (4). So how is THC as dronabinol considered less addictive than the THC in marijuana? There has been lots of push to reschedule cannabis and marijuana down from schedule 1 based on this.

Benefits to Rescheduling Cannabis

THC is an approved an appetite stimulant medication and is often given to people undergoing chemotherapy to combat weight loss. However recently there has been research on the potential effects that THC can have for obstructive sleep apnea, chronic neuropathic pain, glaucoma, arthritis, and many others (5). CBD has recently been a topic of interest for the treatment of seizures, inflammation, migraines, and psychosis and other mental disorders (6).

Cannabis being a schedule 1 drug makes further research into the use of THC to treat these conditions rather difficult, requiring lengthy petitions and government approval. Rescheduling cannabis into a lower drug class would make researching and developing medications involving THC and CBD an easier process.

References:

1. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-endocannabinoid-system-essential-and-mysterious-202108112569

2. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know

3. https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling

4. https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/dea-denial-of-petition-to-reschedule-marijuana

5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563174/

6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6966847/